Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs | 马斯洛需求层次理论

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

马斯洛需求层次理论

By Saul McLeod, PhD
Updated on August 3, 2025

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
马斯洛的需求层次理论是心理学中的一种动机理论，包含一个五层的人类需求模型，通常被描绘为金字塔内的层级结构。

From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security), love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization.
从层次结构的底部向上，需求依次是：生理需求（食物和衣物）、安全需求（工作保障）、爱与归属需求（友谊）、尊重需求和自我实现需求。

Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
在满足更高层次的需求之前，必须先满足层次结构中较低的需求。

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Key Takeaways

关键要点

Needs Hierarchy: The original hierarchy includes physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Later expansions add cognitive, aesthetic, and transcendence needs.
需求层次：最初的层次结构包括生理需求、安全需求、爱与归属需求、尊重需求和自我实现需求。后来的扩展增加了认知需求、审美需求和超越需求。
Not Strictly Linear: While Maslow initially proposed that lower needs must be relatively satisfied before higher ones, modern research suggests people often pursue multiple needs simultaneously.
并非严格线性：尽管马斯洛最初提出必须相对满足较低的需求才能追求较高的需求，但现代研究表明人们通常会同时追求多个需求。
Cultural Variations: Different societies may prioritize needs differently. Individualistic vs. collectivist cultures, for example, can shape which needs take precedence.
文化差异：不同的社会可能会以不同的方式优先考虑需求。例如，个人主义文化与集体主义文化可以决定哪些需求优先。
Practical Applications: In fields like education, healthcare, and workplace management, Maslow’s framework helps identify barriers to motivation and guides strategies to fulfill various needs.
实际应用：在教育、医疗保健和工作场所管理等领域，马斯洛的框架有助于识别阻碍动机的因素，并指导满足各种需求的策略。
Criticisms: Maslow’s biographical approach, cultural biases, and the debate over rigid vs. flexible ordering highlight the importance of viewing his theory as a starting point rather than an absolute rule.
批评意见：马斯洛的传记式方法、文化偏见以及关于严格排序与灵活排序的争论，突出了将他的理论视为起点而非绝对规则的重要性。

According to Maslow, human needs were arranged in a hierarchy, with physiological (survival) needs at the bottom, and the more creative and intellectually oriented ‘self-actualization’ needs at the top.
根据马斯洛的观点，人类的需求是按层次排列的，处于底部的是生理（生存）需求，而更具创造力和智力导向的“自我实现”需求则位于顶部。

Maslow argued that survival needs must be satisfied before the individual can satisfy the higher needs.
马斯洛认为，必须先满足生存需求，个体才能满足更高层次的需求。

The higher up the hierarchy, the more difficult it is to satisfy the needs associated with that stage, because of the interpersonal and environmental barriers that inevitably frustrate us.
在层次结构中越高，满足该阶段相关需求就越困难，因为人际和环境障碍必然会让我们感到沮丧。

Higher needs become increasingly psychological and long-term rather than physiological and short-term, as in the lower survival-related needs.
与较低层次的生存相关需求（生理和短期）不同，更高层次的需求变得越来越具有心理性和长期性。

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow. It organizes human needs into five levels: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Often visualized as a pyramid, this hierarchy suggests that human motivation progresses from basic survival needs to complex psychological and self-fulfillment goals.
马斯洛的需求层次理论是由亚伯拉罕·马斯洛提出的一种心理学动机理论。它将人类需求分为五个层次**：生理需求**、安全需求、爱与归属需求、尊重需求和自我实现需求。通常被可视化为一个金字塔，这个层次结构表明人类动机从基本的生存需求进步到复杂的心理和自我实现目标。

1. Physiological needs are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, sleep, and homeostasis.

生理需求是人类生存的生物学要求，例如空气、食物、饮料、住所、衣物、睡眠和内稳态。

Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior.
我们最基本的需求是身体的生存，这将是首先激励我们行为的因素。

Once that level is fulfilled, the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.
一旦满足了那个层次的需求，下一个更高层次的需求就是激励我们的因素，依此类推。

The human body cannot function optimally if physiological needs are not satisfied.
如果生理需求没有得到满足，人体将无法正常运作。

Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
马斯洛认为生理需求是最重要的，因为其他所有需求在这些需求得到满足之前都处于次要地位。

Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the need for security and safety becomes salient.
一旦个体的生理需求得到满足，对安全和保障的需求就变得重要起来。

2. Safety needs involve predictability, order, and control. These include job security, health, financial security, and freedom from harm.

安全需求涉及可预测性、秩序和控制。这些包括工作保障、健康、经济安全和免受伤害。

Safety needs can be fulfilled by the family and societal structures, such as law enforcement and medical care.
安全需求可以通过家庭和社会结构来满足，例如执法和医疗保健。

For example, emotional security, physical safety, financial security (e.g., employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health, and well-being (e.g., safety against accidents and injury).
例如，情感安全、人身安全、经济安全（例如就业、社会福利）、法律和秩序、免于恐惧、社会稳定、财产、健康和福祉（例如防止事故和伤害的安全）。

After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
在满足了生理需求和安全需求之后，人类需求的第三层次是社会性的，涉及归属感。

3. Love and belongingness reflects the human need for social connection, including friendship, family, and romantic relationships. A sense of belonging and acceptance is essential for psychological well-being and can even override safety needs in some cases.

爱与归属感反映了人类对社会联系的需求，包括友谊、家庭和恋爱关系。归属感和被接受感对于心理福祉至关重要，在某些情况下甚至可以超越安全需求。

Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, family, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love.
归属感需求的例子包括友谊、家庭、亲密关系、信任、被接受、接受和给予情感以及爱。

This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety, as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.
这种需求在童年时期特别强烈，甚至可以超越对安全的需求，正如那些紧紧依附于虐待性父母的孩子所见证的那样。

4. Esteem needs include self-respect, achievement, and recognition from others.

尊重需求包括自尊、成就和他人的认可。

Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, recognition, and prestige).
马斯洛将尊重需求分为两类：（i）对自己的尊重（尊严、成就、精通、独立）和（ii）对他人声誉或尊重的渴望（例如，地位、认可和声望）。

Esteem is the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others.
尊重是人类通常希望被他人接受和重视的愿望。

People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition, which gives them a sense of contribution or value.
人们常常从事某种职业或爱好以获得认可，这让他们有一种贡献感或价值感。

Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy.
在这个层次结构中，不平衡可能导致低自尊或自卑情结。

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
马斯洛指出，对尊重或声誉的需求对儿童和青少年最重要，并且先于真正的自尊或尊严。

5. Self-actualization needs is the pursuit of realizing one’s full potential through personal growth, creativity, or achieving meaningful goals. Maslow described it as the desire ‘to become everything one is capable of becoming’.

自我实现需求是通过个人成长、创造力或实现有意义的目标来实现一个人的全部潜力的追求。马斯洛将其描述为“成为一个人能够成为的一切”的渴望。

This level of need refers to what a person’s full potential is and the realization of that potential.
这一需求层次指的是一个人的全部潜力以及对这一潜力的实现。

This need manifests uniquely in each person.
这种需求在每个人身上都有独特的表现。

For one, it might involve becoming an ideal parent; for another, it may be fulfilled through work, artistic expression, or invention.
对一个人来说，它可能涉及成为一个理想的父母；对另一个人来说，它可能通过工作、艺术表达或发明来实现。

It reflects a commitment to authenticity and the pursuit of purpose.
它反映了对真实性和追求目标的承诺。

Although Maslow did not believe that many of us could achieve true self-actualization, he did believe that all of us experience transitory moments (known as ‘peak experiences’) of self-actualization.
尽管马斯洛并不认为我们许多人能够实现真正的自我实现，但他确实相信我们所有人都会经历自我实现的短暂时刻（被称为“高峰体验”）。

Such moments, associated with personally significant events such as childbirth, sporting achievement and examination success), are difficult to achieve and maintain consistently.
这些时刻与个人重大事件（如分娩、体育成就和考试成功）有关，很难持续实现和保持。

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Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

马斯洛认为人类的需求是按层次排列的：

“It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?
“人确实可以靠面包活着——当没有面包的时候。但是当面包充足，当他的肚子总是饱的时候，人的欲望会发生什么变化呢？

At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency” (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).
随即出现其他（并且是“更高”的）需求，这些需求，而不是生理上的饥饿，主导着有机体。当这些需求依次得到满足时，新的（仍然“更高”的）需求又会出现，依此类推。这就是我们所说的，基本的人类需求被组织成一个相对优势的层次结构（马斯洛，1943 年，第 375 页）。

Key Point: Keep in mind that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs doesn’t follow a strict linear progression. Individuals can feel various needs at the same time or shift between levels.
关键要点：请记住，马斯洛的需求层次并非严格遵循线性进程。个人可以在同一时间感受到多种需求，或者在不同层次之间转换。
Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).
马斯洛在数十年间根据需求层次的概念不断完善他的理论（马斯洛，1943 年，1962 年，1987 年）。

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description.
关于他层次结构的结构，马斯洛（1987 年）提出，层次中的顺序“并不像他在早期描述中可能暗示的那样严格”（第 68 页）。

Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.
马斯洛指出，需求的顺序可能基于外部环境或个体差异而具有灵活性。例如，他指出，对一些个体来说，自尊的需求比爱的需求更重要。对其他人来说，对创造力的满足甚至可能超越最基本的需求。

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71).
马斯洛（1987 年）还指出，大多数行为是多动机的，并指出“任何行为往往同时由几种或所有基本需求决定，而不仅仅是由其中一种”（第 71 页）。

Maslow (1954) proposed that human beings possess two sets of needs. This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs ( D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs ( B-needs).
马斯洛（1954 年）提出人类拥有两组需求。这个五阶段模型可以分为缺失需求和成长需求。前四个层次通常被称为缺失需求（D 需求），而最高层次被称为成长需求或存在需求（B 需求）。

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Deficiency needs

缺失需求

Deficiency needs concern basic survival and include physiological needs (such as the need for food, sex, and sleep) and safety needs (such as the need for security and freedom from danger).
缺失需求涉及基本生存，包括生理需求（如对食物、性行为和睡眠的需求）和安全需求（如对安全和免受危险的需求）。

Behaviors associated with these needs are seen as ‘deficiency’ motivated, as they are a means to an end.
与这些需求相关的行为被视为“缺失型”动机，因为它们是一种手段。

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet.
缺失需求是由于缺乏而产生的，当它们未得到满足时，被认为会激励人们。

Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
此外，满足这些需求的动机会因为被剥夺的时间越长而变得越强。例如，一个人越长时间没有食物，他就会越饿。

Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower-level deficit needs before progressing to meet higher-level growth needs.
马斯洛（1943 年）最初指出，个体必须先满足较低层次的缺失需求，然后才能继续去满足较高层次的成长需求。

However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a need is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).
然而，他后来澄清说，满足一种需求并不是一个“全有或全无”的现象，承认他早期的说法可能给人留下了“一种需求必须 100%得到满足，下一个需求才会出现”的错误印象（1987 年，第 69 页）。

When a deficit need has been “more or less” satisfied, it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed toward meeting the next set of needs we have yet to satisfy.
当一种缺失需求“或多或少”得到满足时，它就会消失，我们的活动习惯性地转向去满足我们尚未满足的下一组需求。

These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once engaged.
这些随后成为我们突出的需求。然而，成长需求仍然会被感受到，甚至在被激发后可能会变得更加强烈。

Growth needs

成长需求

Growth needs are more psychological and are associated with realizing an individual’s full potential and needing to ‘self-actualize’. These needs are achieved more through intellectual and creative behaviors.
成长需求更具心理性，与实现个体的全部潜力和需要“自我实现”有关。这些需求更多地通过智力和创造性行为来实现。

Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
成长需求并非源于某种缺乏，而是源于作为一个人成长的愿望。

Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level, called self-actualization. Growth needs are achieved more through intellectual and creative behaviors.
一旦这些成长需求得到合理满足，个体可能能够达到最高层次，称为自我实现。成长需求更多地通过智力和创造性行为来实现。

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower-level needs.
每个人都有能力并且渴望沿着层次结构向上移动，朝着自我实现的水平发展。不幸的是，由于未能满足较低层次的需求，进步常常被中断。

Life experiences, including divorce and the loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
生活经历，包括离婚和失业，可能导致个体在层次结构的不同层次之间波动。

Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.
因此，并非每个人都会单向地通过层次结构移动，而可能在不同类型的需求之间来回移动。

The expanded hierarchy of needs

扩展后的需求层次

It is important to note that Maslow’s (1943, 1954) five-stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).
需要注意的是，马斯洛（1943 年，1954 年）的五阶段模型已经扩展，包括认知需求和审美需求（马斯洛，1970a）以及后来的超越需求（马斯洛，1970b）。

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Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s.
对原始五阶段模型的更改被突出显示，包括一个七阶段模型和一个八阶段模型；这两个模型都是在 20 世纪 60 年代和 70 年代开发的。

Biological and physiological needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
生物和生理需求——空气、食物、饮料、住所、温暖、性行为、睡眠等。
Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
安全需求——免受自然因素的影响、安全、秩序、法律、稳定、免于恐惧。
Love and belongingness needs – friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
爱与归属感需求——友谊、亲密关系、信任和被接受，接受和给予情感和爱。加入团体，成为团体的一部分（家庭、朋友、工作）。
Esteem needs – which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the need to be accepted and valued by others (e.g., status, prestige).
尊重需求——马斯洛将其分为两类：（i）对自己的尊重（尊严、成就、精通、独立）和（ii）被他人接受和重视的需求（例如，地位、声望）。
Cognitive needs – knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability.
认知需求——知识和理解、好奇心、探索、对意义和可预测性的需求。

Cognitive needs drive our pursuit of knowledge and understanding.
认知需求推动我们对知识和理解的追求。

For instance, a student’s desire to understand complex mathematical theories, a traveler’s curiosity about diverse cultures, or an individual’s quest for life’s deeper meanings all exemplify these needs.
例如，学生对复杂数学理论的理解欲望、旅行者对不同文化的好奇心，或者个人对生命更深层意义的追求，都是这些需求的体现。

Meeting these needs facilitates personal growth, comprehension, and a deeper understanding of life and its complexities.
满足这些需求有助于个人成长、理解以及对生活及其复杂性的更深入理解。
Aesthetic needs – appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
审美需求——欣赏和寻找美、平衡、形式等。

Fulfilling these needs leads to a deeper sense of satisfaction and harmony in life, as individuals seek environments and experiences that are pleasing and resonant with their sense of beauty.
满足这些需求会带来更深层次的满足感和生活中的和谐，因为个人会寻求那些令人愉悦并与他们对美的感受相呼应的环境和体验。

This involves the appreciation and pursuit of art, music, nature, and other forms of aesthetic expression.
这包括对艺术、音乐、自然以及其他审美表达形式的欣赏和追求。

Fulfilling these needs isn’t just about physical beauty but also the emotional and psychological satisfaction derived from experiencing order and elegance.
满足这些需求不仅仅是关于外在美，还包括从体验秩序和优雅中获得的情感和心理满足。
Self-actualization needs – realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences.
自我实现需求——实现个人潜力、自我满足、追求个人成长以及高峰体验。
Transcendence needs – A person is motivated by values that transcend beyond the personal self. Beyond self-actualization, they represent the human desire to connect with a higher reality, purpose, or the universe.
超越需求——一个人受到超越个人自我的价值观的激励。超越自我实现，它们代表了人类渴望与更高的现实、目标或宇宙相连接。

This level emphasizes altruism, spiritual connection, and helping others achieve their potential.
这一层次强调利他主义、精神联系以及帮助他人实现他们的潜力。

Individuals seek experiences that move beyond personal concerns, aiming to achieve a deep sense of unity, understanding, and belonging within the vast expanse of existence.
个人寻求超越个人关注的体验，旨在实现一种深刻的存在感、理解和归属感，这种感受是在广阔的存在领域中获得的。

Examples of transcendence needs include mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith, etc.).
超越需求的例子包括神秘体验以及与自然、审美、性体验、为他人服务、科学追求、宗教信仰等相关的某些体验。

Self-Actualization Needs

自我实现需求

Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943) formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right.
马斯洛（1943 年）没有专注于精神病理学和人们出了什么问题，而是制定了一个更积极的人类行为描述，关注的是什么进展顺利。

He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential.
他对人类潜力以及我们如何实现这种潜力感兴趣。

Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who are fulfilled and doing all they are capable of.
心理学家亚伯拉罕·马斯洛（1943 年，1954 年）指出，人类动机是基于人们通过个人成长寻求满足和变化。自我实现的人是那些感到满足并且正在做他们所能做的一切的人。

The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s life.
自我实现的增长（马斯洛，1962 年）指的是一个人一生中对个人成长和发现的需求。

For Maslow, a person is always “becoming” and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization, a person comes to find a meaning in life that is important to them.
对马斯洛来说，一个人总是在“成为”，在这些方面永远不会保持静止。在自我实现中，一个人开始找到对他们来说重要的生活意义。

As each individual is unique, the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010).
由于每个人都是独一无二的，自我实现的动机使人们朝着不同的方向发展（Kenrick 等人，2010 年）。

For some people, self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or literature; for others, through sports, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting.
对一些人来说，自我实现可以通过创作艺术作品或文学作品来实现；对其他人来说，可以通过体育、在课堂上或在企业环境中实现。

Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak experiences.
马斯洛（1962 年）认为自我实现可以通过高峰体验的概念来衡量。

This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder.
当一个人完全地体验世界本来的样子时，就会出现这种体验，并且会有极度的兴奋、欢乐和惊奇的感觉。

It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a “happy ever after” (Hoffman, 1988).
需要注意的是，自我实现是一个持续的“成为”过程，而不是一个达到“从此幸福快乐”的完美状态（Hoffman，1988 年）。

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:
马斯洛对自我实现提供了以下描述：

“It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions” (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383).

“它指的是一个人对自我满足的渴望，即他倾向于实现他潜在的东西。这些需求的具体形式当然会因人而异。在一个人身上，它可能表现为成为理想母亲的渴望，在另一个人身上，它可能通过体育表现出来，而在另一个人身上，它可能通过绘画或发明表现出来”（马斯洛，1943 年，第 382-383 页）。

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

自我实现者的特征

Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization.
尽管从理论上讲，我们所有人都有能力实现自我实现，但大多数人并不会这样做，或者只会在有限的程度上做到。马斯洛（1970 年）估计只有 2%的人能够达到自我实现的状态。

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.
他对那些他认为已经实现了个人潜力的人的特征特别感兴趣。

By studying 18 people, he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein), Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.
通过研究 18 位他认为已经实现自我（包括亚伯拉罕·林肯和阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦），马斯洛（1970 年）确定了一个自我实现者的 15 个特征。

Characteristics of self-actualizers:

自我实现者的特征：

They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
他们能够高效地感知现实，并且能够忍受不确定性；
Accept themselves and others for what they are;
接受自己和他人本来的样子；
Spontaneous in thought and action;
思想和行动上具有自发性；
Problem-centered (not self-centered);
以问题为中心（而不是以自我为中心）；
Unusual sense of humor;
具有不同寻常的幽默感；
Able to look at life objectively;
能够客观地看待生活；
Highly creative;
高度富有创造力；
Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
对文化同化有抵抗力，但并非故意反传统；
Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
关心人类的福祉；
Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
能够深刻欣赏基本的生活体验；
Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
与少数人建立深刻而令人满意的人际关系；
Peak experiences;
高峰体验；
Need for privacy;
对隐私的需求；
Democratic attitudes;
具有民主的态度；
Strong moral/ethical standards.
具有强烈的道德/伦理标准。

Behavior leading to self-actualization :

导致自我实现的行为：

Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
像孩子一样体验生活，全神贯注；
Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
尝试新事物，而不是坚持走安全的道路；
Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition, authority or the majority;
在评估体验时听从自己的感受，而不是传统、权威或多数人的声音；
Avoiding pretense (“game playing”) and being honest;
避免伪装（“玩游戏”）和保持诚实；
Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority;
如果你的观点与大多数人不一致，做好不受欢迎的准备；
Taking responsibility and working hard;
承担责任并努力工作；
Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.
尝试识别你的防御机制，并有勇气放弃它们。

The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are shown in the list above.
自我实现者的特征和导致自我实现的行为在上面的列表中有所显示。

Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, “There are no perfect human beings” (Maslow, 1970a, p. 176).
尽管人们以自己独特的方式实现自我实现，但他们倾向于共享某些特征。然而，自我实现是一个程度问题，“没有完美的人”（马斯洛，1970a，第 176 页）。

It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only self-actualized people will display them.
没有必要表现出所有 15 个特征才能实现自我实现，并且不仅仅是自我实现的人才会表现出它们。

Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves achieving one’s potential.
马斯洛并没有将自我实现等同于完美。自我实现仅仅涉及实现一个人的潜力。

Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieve self-actualization.
因此，一个人可以是愚蠢的、浪费的、虚荣的和不礼貌的，但仍然可以实现自我实现。不到 2%的人口实现了自我实现。

Applications & Examples

应用与示例

Workplace organizations and employee motivation

工作场所组织与员工激励

The theory applies to organizational structures and the motivation of employees.
该理论适用于组织结构和员工激励。

To enhance performance, the organizational culture and HR strategies must address and fulfill the needs of employees.
为了提高绩效，组织文化和人力资源战略必须解决并满足员工的需求。

HR strategies, including compensation, benefits, job design, training, cultural development, and performance evaluations, can be tailored to cater to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Jerome, 2013).
人力资源战略，包括薪酬、福利、工作设计、培训、文化发展和绩效评估，可以量身定制以满足马斯洛的需求层次（Jerome，2013 年）。

1. What can managers do to motivate employees with physiological needs?

1. 如何激励有生理需求的员工？

At the foundational physiological level, organizations should provide wages that sustain a decent standard of living and comprehensive benefits, ensuring employees can comfortably cater to necessities such as food, shelter, and medical care.
在基础的生理层面，组织应该提供能够维持体面生活水平的工资和全面的福利，确保员工能够舒适地满足食物、住所和医疗保健等必需品。

Offer comprehensive healthcare benefits – Quality health insurance, dental, vision, mental health coverage, and wellness programs demonstrate you care about employees’ overall health and ability to afford care.
提供全面的医疗福利——优质的健康保险、牙科保险、视力保险、心理健康保障和保健计划表明你关心员工的整体健康和支付医疗费用的能力。
Subsidize gym memberships – Some companies offer monthly gym subsidies or onsite fitness centers to support physical health and stress management.
补贴健身房会员——一些公司提供每月的健身房补贴或现场健身中心，以支持身体健康和压力管理。
Make the space ergonomic – Ensure workstations, chairs, keyboards, etc. are height adjustable and comfortable to work at for extended periods to prevent bodily strain or injury.
使空间符合人体工程学——确保工作站、椅子、键盘等的高度可调，并且长时间工作时舒适，以防止身体疲劳或受伤。
Pay for wellness services – Some companies offer perks like free annual flu shots, smoking cessation programs, or biometric screenings to proactively address health.
支付健康服务费用——一些公司提供诸如免费年度流感疫苗、戒烟计划或生物测量筛查等福利，以积极应对健康问题。

2. What can managers do to motivate employees with safety needs?

2. 如何激励有安全需求的员工？

For the safety tier, offering job stability, secure working conditions, and equitable compensation is essential.
对于安全层面，提供工作稳定性、安全的工作条件和公平的薪酬是至关重要的。

Employees are more motivated when they feel both financially stable and physically safe within their workplace.
当员工在工作场所感到财务稳定和人身安全时，他们的积极性更高。

Establish anti-harassment policies and reporting procedures – Ensure strong systems are in place for reporting issues confidentially and without retaliation.
建立反骚扰政策和报告程序——确保有强大的系统可以保密地报告问题，并且不会遭到报复。
Cultivate psychological safety – Foster an environment where people feel safe to take risks, make mistakes, and speak up without fear of embarrassment or punishment.
培养心理安全——营造一个人们可以安全地冒险、犯错误并畅所欲言而不必担心尴尬或惩罚的环境。
Define and reinforce ethical standards – Clearly establish and model expected conduct to prevent ethical lapses that undermine security.
定义并加强道德标准——明确建立并示范预期的行为，以防止破坏安全的道德失误。
Promote transparency in pay and promotion practices – Clearly communicate compensation structure, advancement criteria, and salary negotiation options to build trust.
促进薪酬和晋升实践的透明度——明确传达薪酬结构、晋升标准和薪酬谈判选项，以建立信任。

3. What can managers do to motivate employees with social needs?

3. 如何激励有社交需求的员工？

Addressing social needs involves cultivating an inclusive community within the organization.
满足社交需求涉及在组织内培养一个包容的社区。

Team-building exercises, social gatherings, mentorship initiatives, and transparent communication can foster a sense of belonging.
团队建设活动、社交聚会、导师计划和透明的沟通可以培养归属感。

Motivation is heightened when employees feel appreciated and integrated within their teams.
当员工感到被赏识并且融入他们的团队时，他们的积极性会更高。

Develop mother’s rooms – Providing clean, private lactation rooms supports new mothers’ needs to pump breast milk during work hours.
开发母婴室——提供干净、私密的哺乳室，支持新妈妈在工作时间泵奶的需求。
Train supervisors in mental health first aid – Equip leaders to recognize signs of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and properly intervene or connect employees with help.
对主管进行心理健康急救培训——为领导者提供培训，使他们能够识别抑郁、焦虑、药物滥用的迹象，并正确地进行干预或为员工提供帮助。
Develop a mentorship program – Allow experienced employees to mentor newer ones to establish interpersonal bonds and a sense of support.
开发导师计划——允许经验丰富的员工指导新员工，以建立人际关系和支持感。
Model inclusive language and behavior – Use words and actions that are welcoming and respectful to all groups.
示范包容的语言和行为——使用对所有群体都表示欢迎和尊重的词汇和行为。
Share vulnerability and imperfections – Leaders should open up on mistakes, challenges, and lessons learned to humanize the workplace.
分享脆弱和不完美——领导者应该分享错误、挑战和经验教训，以人性化工作场所。

4. What can managers do to motivate employees with esteem needs?

4. 如何激励有尊重需求的员工？

To cater to esteem needs, organizations should implement recognition systems, merit-based promotions, and leadership roles.
为了满足尊重需求，组织应该实施认可系统、基于绩效的晋升和领导角色。

Leverage unique talents – Properly designated titles that reflect an individual’s role and status can also be beneficial.
利用独特才能——正确指定反映个人角色和地位的头衔也可以有所帮助。
Make the most of performance reviews – Regular performance evaluations not only offer recognition but also highlight areas for growth, feeding into the employees’ need for esteem. Thoroughly highlight strengths, progress made, and areas of influence.
充分利用绩效评估——定期的绩效评估不仅提供认可，还突出成长领域，满足员工的尊重需求。充分强调优势、取得的进步和影响力领域。
Entrust employees with mentoring roles – Having them share knowledge and coach others recognizes their expertise.
赋予员工导师角色——让他们分享知识和指导他人，承认他们的专业知识。

What can managers do to motivate employees with self-actualization needs?

如何激励有自我实现需求的员工？

For self-actualization, organizations should ensure that job roles align with employees’ talents and passions.
对于自我实现，组织应该确保工作角色与员工的才能和热情相匹配。

By empowering employees, presenting them with challenges, and fostering an environment that encourages innovation, organizations can facilitate their journey toward self-actualization.
通过赋予员工权力、向他们提出挑战，并营造一个鼓励创新的环境，组织可以帮助他们实现自我实现的旅程。

Foster innovation – Dedicate time and resources for experimenting with new ideas without pressure.
促进创新——拨出时间和资源，无压力地尝试新想法。
Sponsor continuing education – Provide tuition reimbursement or subsidies for advanced courses and certificate programs. Offer paid time for relevant reading, online courses, conferences, and seminars.
赞助继续教育——提供学费报销或补贴高级课程和证书项目的费用。提供付费时间用于相关阅读、在线课程、会议和研讨会。

Workplace Motivation

工作场所激励

A recent quantitative study by McConnell and Metz (2024) examined how different work arrangements (on-site, remote, hybrid) fulfill employees’ needs.
麦康奈尔和梅茨（2024 年）最近的一项定量研究考察了不同的工作安排（现场、远程、混合）如何满足员工的需求。

Surveying full-time U.S. employees, they found that those in hybrid work settings reported significantly higher satisfaction of all five need levels, compared to employees working exclusively on-site or exclusively remotely.
调查美国全职员工后，他们发现，与仅在现场或仅远程工作的员工相比，混合工作环境中的员工报告所有五个需求层次的满意度显著更高。

The hybrid arrangement, which offers flexibility along with in-person collaboration, appears to satisfy basic needs (job security, comfort) while also supporting social connection and personal growth, more so than the other arrangements.
这种提供灵活性和面对面协作的混合安排，似乎既能满足基本需求（工作保障、舒适），又能支持社交联系和个人成长，比其他安排做得更好。

This finding suggests that workplaces which balance remote flexibility with opportunities for face-to-face interaction can better motivate employees by addressing the full spectrum of human needs.
这一发现表明，通过平衡远程灵活性和面对面交流的机会，能够更好地满足人类需求的全方位的工作场所可以更好地激励员工。

The research by Ihensekien and Joel (2023) compares Maslow’s hierarchy with Herzberg’s two-factor theory, finding clear alignment between the frameworks.
伊亨塞肯和乔尔（2023 年）的研究将马斯洛的需求层次与赫茨伯格的双因素理论进行了比较，发现这两个框架之间存在明确的一致性。

Maslow’s lower-level needs correspond to Herzberg’s “hygiene” factors, while higher-level needs match his intrinsic motivators.
马斯洛的低层次需求对应于赫茨伯格的“保健”因素，而高层次需求与他的内在激励因素相匹配。

Their review concludes that organizations must address both basic extrinsic needs (salary, job security) and higher intrinsic needs (recognition, growth opportunities) simultaneously to develop a motivated, high-performing workforce.
他们的综述得出结论，组织必须同时解决基本的外在需求（薪酬、工作保障）和更高层次的内在需求（认可、成长机会），以培养一个积极主动、表现卓越的员工队伍。

Effective management requires recognizing employees’ diverse needs and creating conditions that satisfy both fundamental necessities and growth needs, resulting in more engaged and productive employees.
有效的管理需要认识到员工多样化的需求，并创造满足基本需求和成长需求的条件，从而培养出更具参与度和生产力的员工。

Nursing

护理

The hierarchy provides a framework for understanding patients as multifaceted human beings.
这个层次结构为理解患者作为多面的人类提供了框架。

Patient care should be holistic, not just medical. Nurses must assess and address the spectrum of patient needs – physical, mental, emotional, and social (Jackson et al., 2014; Toney-Butler & Thayer, 2023).
患者护理应该是整体的，而不仅仅是医疗。护士必须评估并满足患者的需求范围——身体、心理、情感和社会（Jackson 等人，2014 年；Toney-Butler 和 Thayer，2023 年）。

Doing so motivates greater engagement in care, faster healing, and improved outcomes.
这样做可以激励患者更多地参与护理，加快康复，并改善结果。

Physiological needs (ABC + D) – Ensure patients have adequate nutrition, hydration, pain control, sleep, and physical comfort. Address pain that hinders sleep and recovery.
生理需求 (ABC + D) – 确保患者有充足的营养、水分、疼痛控制、睡眠和身体舒适。解决阻碍睡眠和康复的疼痛。
- A – Airway: Ensure the patient has an open airway.
  A – 呼吸道：确保患者呼吸道通畅。
- B – Breathing: Assess and support adequate breathing and gas exchange.
  B – 呼吸：评估并支持充足的呼吸和气体交换。
- C – Circulation: Evaluate and maintain proper blood circulation.
  C – 循环：评估并维持适当的血液循环。
- D – Decreased level of consciousness: Monitor for any changes in behavior or mental status.
  D – 意识水平下降：监测行为或精神状态的任何变化。
Safety needs – Maintain a clean, quiet environment with call bells for assistance. Prevent injuries through fall precautions, blood clot prevention, and pressure ulcer avoidance.
安全需求 – 维护一个干净、安静的环境，并配备呼叫铃以便求助。通过防跌倒措施、预防血栓和避免压疮来防止伤害。
Explain tests, treatments, and medications to patients to relieve anxiety. Keep patient info confidential. Foster a climate of trust through compassionate listening. Prevent medication errors.
向患者解释检查、治疗和药物，以缓解焦虑。保护患者信息的保密性。通过富有同情心的倾听营造信任的氛围。防止药物错误。
Belongingness – Loneliness impedes healing. Make patients feel welcomed and included. Introduce them to other patients. Allow for family visitation and spiritual practices.
归属感 – 孤独会阻碍康复。让患者感到受欢迎和被接纳。将他们介绍给其他患者。允许家人探望和进行精神实践。
Esteem – Show respect through courteous communication and cultural sensitivity. Maintain dignity and privacy.
尊重 – 通过礼貌的沟通和文化敏感性表现出尊重。维护尊严和隐私。
Empower patients in care decisions. Explain care in an easy-to-understand way. Listen attentively to their concerns. Make them feel valued.
赋予患者在护理决策中的权力。以易于理解的方式解释护理。认真倾听他们的关切。让他们感到被重视。
Self-actualization— Align care with patient values and aspirations. Perhaps share motivational stories of those with similar diagnoses who stayed active or provide resources on
自我实现—— 使护理与患者的价值观和抱负相一致。也许可以分享那些保持活跃的类似诊断患者的励志故事，或者提供应对健康变化悲伤的资源。

Special Considerations

特殊考虑

Pain Management: While pain is typically considered a physiological need, its priority can vary. Acute, severe pain or pain indicating a life-threatening condition should be addressed immediately.
疼痛管理：虽然疼痛通常被视为一种生理需求，但其优先级可能会有所不同。急性、严重的疼痛或表明危及生命的状况的疼痛应立即处理。
Hospice Care: For end-of-life care patients, comfort and quality of life may take precedence over addressing physiological needs.
临终关怀：对于临终关怀患者，舒适和生活质量可能比处理生理需求更为重要。

Education

教育

Maslow’s (1962) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools.
马斯洛（1962 年）的需求层次理论对学校的教学和课堂管理做出了重大贡献。

Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning.
与其将行为简化为对环境的反应，马斯洛（1970a）采用了一种整体的教育和学习方法。

Maslow examines an individual’s complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities and how they impact learning.
马斯洛考察了一个人的整体身体、情感、社会和智力品质以及它们如何影响学习。

Applying Maslow’s hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher is obvious. Before a student’s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs.
将马斯洛的需求层次理论应用于课堂教师的工作是显而易见的。在满足学生的认知需求之前，他们必须先满足基本的生理需求。

For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.
例如，一个疲倦和饥饿的学生会发现很难集中精力学习。学生需要在情感和身体上感到安全，并在课堂上被接受，才能取得进步并发挥他们的全部潜力。

Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom, and the teacher should create a supportive environment.
马斯洛认为必须向学生表明他们在课堂上是被重视和尊重的，教师应该创造一个支持性的环境。

Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.
自尊心低下的学生在自尊得到增强之前，不会以最佳速度取得学术进步。

Maslow’s hierarchy provides a humanistic lens for teaching the whole child.
马斯洛的需求层次为全面教育儿童提供了一个人文主义视角。

Maslow (1971, p. 195) argued that a humanistic educational approach would develop people who are “stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With increased personal responsibility for one’s personal life, and with a rational set of values to guide one’s choosing, people would begin to actively change the society in which they lived”.

马斯洛（1971 年，第 195 页）认为，人文主义的教育方法将培养出“更强大、更健康，并且在更大程度上掌控自己生活的人。随着个人对自己生活的责任感增加，以及一套理性的价值观来指导选择，人们将开始积极改变他们所生活的社会”。

Here are some ways a teacher can apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the classroom:

以下是一些教师可以在课堂上应用马斯洛需求层次的方法：

Physiological – Ensure students have access to water, food, restroom breaks, and movement. Allow snacks, flexible seating, and adequate breaks.
生理需求 – 确保学生能够获得水、食物、洗手间休息和活动。允许吃零食、灵活的座位安排和足够的休息时间。
Safety – Maintain an orderly classroom with clear expectations. Prevent bullying. Build trust through consistency and fairness. Allow students to make mistakes safely.
安全需求 – 维护一个有秩序的课堂，有明确的期望。防止欺凌。通过一致性和公平性建立信任。让学生在安全的环境中犯错误。
Belongingness – Facilitate community and collaboration. Foster teamwork through group projects. Learn student names and backgrounds. Appreciate diversity.
归属感 – 促进社区和合作。通过小组项目培养团队合作。了解学生的名字和背景。欣赏多样性。
Esteem – Recognize student strengths and progress. Display student work. Empower leadership roles like line leader or tech helper. Praise efforts, not just achievement.
尊重需求 – 认可学生的优点和进步。展示学生的作品。赋予领导角色，如排头兵或技术助手。表扬努力，而不仅仅是成就。
Self-Actualization – Help students pursue interests creatively. Assign passion projects. Encourage goal-setting. Provide enrichment opportunities. Support challenging oneself.
自我实现 – 帮助学生创造性地追求兴趣。分配兴趣项目。鼓励设定目标。提供充实机会。支持自我挑战。

When these foundational needs are met, students are more motivated to learn and perform well academically. But needs fluctuate. Be observant and nurture needs as they arise.
当这些基础需求得到满足时，学生更有动力学习并在学术上表现良好。但需求会波动。要善于观察，并在需求出现时加以培养。

Modern Applications in Technology and Society

现代技术与社会中的应用

1. AI and Ethics:

1. 人工智能与伦理：

With the rapid rise of artificial intelligence in everyday life, scholars have started using Maslow’s human-centric perspective to guide AI design and ethics.
随着人工智能在日常生活中的迅速兴起，学者们开始使用马斯洛的人本主义视角来指导人工智能的设计和伦理。

For example, Montag et al. (2025) discuss how AI could foster or hinder human well-being at each level of need.
例如，蒙塔格等人（2025 年）讨论了人工智能如何在每个需求层次上_促进或阻碍_人类福祉。

By adopting Maslow’s hierarchy as a design framework, they argue we can ensure AI systems remain “needs-aware” – i.e. technology should support humans’ physiological needs (e.g. health monitoring), safety needs (e.g. privacy and security), social needs (e.g. facilitating meaningful connection rather than isolation), esteem (e.g. supporting learning and achievement), and even self-actualization (e.g. creative AI tools).
他们认为，通过采用马斯洛的需求层次作为设计框架，我们可以确保人工智能系统保持“需求意识”——即技术应该支持人类的生理需求（例如健康监测）、安全需求（例如隐私和安全）、社会需求（例如促进有意义的联系而不是孤立）、尊重（例如支持学习和成就），甚至自我实现（例如创造性人工智能工具）。

This approach reframes AI’s role as not just efficiency or profit, but promoting human flourishing.
这种方法重新定义了人工智能的角色，不仅仅是提高效率或获取利润，而是促进人类的繁荣。

It also raises ethical concerns: if AI algorithms manipulate our needs (for instance, social media AI drawing on our esteem or belonging needs to keep us hooked), we must govern technology in line with human values.
它还引发了伦理问题：如果人工智能算法操纵我们的需求（例如，社交媒体人工智能利用我们的尊重或归属需求让我们上瘾），我们必须按照人类价值观来管理技术。

2. Digital Wellness and Social Media:

2. 数字健康与社交媒体：

Digital technology has made satisfying certain needs easier while introducing new pitfalls.
数字技术使满足某些需求变得更容易，同时引入了新的陷阱。

Physiological and safety needs can now be met through digital conveniences: online grocery and food delivery, telemedicine, smart home devices for security, etc., meaning people can secure food, shelter, and safety without leaving their home.
生理需求和安全需求现在可以通过数字便利来满足：在线杂货和食品配送、远程医疗、用于安全的智能家居设备等，这意味着人们可以在不出门的情况下获得食物、住所和安全。

Yet this convenience brings vulnerabilities – e.g. over-reliance on internet and supply chains (what happens to food and warmth if the power or network goes out?) and new threats like cyber-security risks that Maslow never had to consider.
然而，这种便利带来了脆弱性——例如对互联网和供应链的过度依赖（如果停电或网络中断，食物和温暖会发生什么？）以及马斯洛从未考虑过的新威胁，如网络安全风险。

Love, belonging and esteem needs are profoundly affected by social media and online life.
爱、归属和尊重需求受到社交媒体和在线生活的深刻影响。

Digital platforms make it easier to connect with friends, find communities, and gain recognition (likes, followers) – potentially fulfilling social and esteem needs virtually.
数字平台让人们更容易与朋友联系、找到社区并获得认可（点赞、关注者）——可能在虚拟环境中满足社交和尊重需求。

However, they also create illusions of connection and unhealthy validation loops: people may become addicted to chasing “likes” as a proxy for esteem, or feel lonelier despite being constantly connected, due to shallow online interactions.
然而，它们也创造了_连接的幻觉_和不健康的验证循环：人们可能会沉迷于追逐“点赞”作为尊重的替代品，或者尽管一直保持联系，但由于肤浅的在线互动，会感到更孤独。

The dopamine-driven feedback loops on social media can hijack our belonging and esteem needs, leading to anxiety and comparison rather than true fulfillment.
社交媒体上由多巴胺驱动的反馈循环可能会劫持我们的归属和尊重需求，导致焦虑和比较，而不是真正的满足。

3. Climate Change and Disaster Preparedness:

3. 气候变化与灾害准备

Researchers in the 2020s have started reframing environmental issues through the hierarchy of needs.
2020 年代的研究人员开始通过需求层次重新定义环境问题。

For example, Adepoju (2025) argues that in an era of frequent climate-related disasters, disaster preparedness itself should be viewed as a basic human need, on par with food, water, and shelter.
例如，阿德波朱（2025 年）认为，在频繁发生与气候相关的灾害的时代，灾害准备本身应该被视为一种基本的人类需求，与食物、水和住所同等重要。

In vulnerable communities (often low-income and historically marginalized areas hit hardest by floods, hurricanes, wildfires, etc.), being prepared for disasters – having evacuation plans, emergency supplies, resilient infrastructure – is literally a matter of survival.
在脆弱社区（通常是低收入和历史上被边缘化的地区，这些地区受到洪水、飓风、野火等灾害的打击最为严重），为灾害做好准备——拥有疏散计划、应急物资、有弹性的基础设施——实际上是生存问题。

Adepoju uses Maslow’s framework to illustrate that without this “preparedness” level secured (which falls under safety needs), people cannot easily progress to higher aspirations when they are continually knocked down by crises.
阿德波朱使用马斯洛的框架来说明，如果没有这个“准备”层次的安全保障（属于安全需求），人们在不断受到危机打击时就很难实现更高层次的抱负。

Furthermore, climate psychology researchers note that if society wants individuals to engage in pro-environmental behaviors (a higher-order concern, related to self-actualization or transcendence in wanting to protect the planet), we must ensure their basic economic and safety needs are met first.
此外，气候心理学研究人员指出，如果社会希望个人参与环保行为（这是一种更高层次的关切，与自我实现或超越有关，即想要保护地球），我们必须首先确保他们的基本经济和安全需求得到满足。

A person preoccupied with daily survival will understandably care less about recycling or carbon footprints.
一个专注于日常生存的人可以理解地会较少关心回收或碳足迹。

On the flip side, when people do have stability, appealing to higher needs like purpose and legacy can motivate climate action – framing environmental stewardship as a path to meaning or community belonging.
另一方面，当人们拥有稳定时，呼吁更高层次的需求，如目标和遗产，可以激励气候行动——将环境保护视为通往意义或社区归属的道路。

Critical Evaluation

批判性评估

Before exploring each critique in detail, here are the main concerns raised about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
在详细探讨每项批评之前，以下是关于马斯洛需求层次的主要担忧：

Subjective Methodology: Maslow’s biographical analysis (based on a small, primarily Western sample) risks researcher bias and limited generalizability.
主观方法论：马斯洛的传记分析（基于一个较小的、主要是西方的样本）存在研究者偏见和有限的普遍性风险。
Cultural Bias: Critics argue the hierarchy reflects Western, individualistic values and does not always apply uniformly across cultures.
文化偏见：批评者认为该层次结构反映了西方的个人主义价值观，并不总是在所有文化中均匀适用。
Lack of Empirical Rigor: Testing self-actualization and proving a strict stepwise sequence is challenging, making parts of the theory more speculative than scientifically proven.
缺乏实证严谨性：测试自我实现并证明严格的逐步序列是具有挑战性的，使得理论的某些部分更多是推测性的，而不是科学证明的。
Rigid Progression: Real-world examples show people often meet higher-order needs (like belonging or creativity) even when some basic needs remain unmet.
僵化的进程：现实世界的例子表明，即使一些基本需求仍未得到满足，人们也常常会满足更高层次的需求（如归属感或创造力）。
Modern Pluralistic View of Motivation: Contemporary psychologists often see motivation as multidimensional—people can experience and pursue several needs at once rather than progressing linearly from lower to higher needs.
现代多元化的动机观：当代心理学家通常将动机视为多维的——人们可以同时体验和追求多种需求，而不是从较低层次的需求线性地进步到更高层次的需求。
Mental Health Contexts: Research on homelessness, serious mental illness, and recovery suggests individuals continue striving for self-actualization or personal growth despite unmet basic needs, challenging the notion that one must fully satisfy lower needs first.
心理健康背景：关于无家可归、严重精神疾病和康复的研究表明，尽管基本需求未得到满足，个体仍继续努力实现自我实现或个人成长，这挑战了必须首先完全满足较低需求的观点。
Overlooked Alternatives: Other models (e.g., Alderfer’s ERG, Self-Determination Theory) suggest more flexible or universal principles of motivation that do not rely on a linear structure.
被忽视的替代方案：其他模型（例如，奥尔德弗的 ERG 理论、自我决定理论）提出了更灵活或普遍的动机原则，这些原则不依赖于线性结构。

1. Subjective Biographical Analysis

1. 主观的传记分析

The most significant limitation of Maslow’s theory concerns his methodology. Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualized individuals by undertaking a qualitative method called biographical analysis.
马斯洛理论的最显著限制在于他的方法论。马斯洛通过一种称为传记分析的定性方法制定了自我实现个体的特征。

He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources, he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general.
他查阅了 18 位他认为是自我实现的人的传记和著作。从这些来源中，他制定了一份似乎具有这一特定群体特征的品质清单，而不是整个人类的特征。

From a scientific perspective, there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher.
从科学的角度来看，这种方法存在许多问题。首先，可以认为传记分析作为一种方法是极其主观的，因为它完全基于研究者的观点。

Personal opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces the validity of any data obtained. Therefore Maslow’s operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact.
个人意见总是容易产生偏见，这降低了所获得数据的有效性。因此，马斯洛对自我实现的操作性定义不应被盲目接受为科学事实。

2. Biased Sample and Limited Generalizability

2. 偏见样本和有限的普遍性

Maslow’s biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley, and Beethoven).
马斯洛的传记分析集中在自我实现个体的偏见样本上，主要限于受过高等教育的白人男性（如托马斯·杰斐逊、亚伯拉罕·林肯、阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦、威廉·詹姆斯、奥尔德斯·赫胥黎和贝多芬）。

Although Maslow (1970) did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa, they comprised a small proportion of his sample.
尽管马斯洛（1970 年）研究了自我实现的女性，如埃莉诺·罗斯福和特蕾莎修女，但她们在他的样本中所占比例很小。

This makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicity. Thus questioning the population validity of Maslow’s findings.
这使得很难将他的理论推广到女性以及来自较低社会阶层或不同种族的个体。因此，对马斯洛研究结果的人口有效性提出了质疑。

Critics have often pointed out that Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs reflects Western, individualistic values.
批评者经常指出，马斯洛的需求层次反映了西方的个人主义价值观。

In many collectivist or non-Western cultures, community, spirituality, and family obligations may rank as foundational priorities, sometimes appearing at or near the base of the “pyramid” rather than being relegated to higher tiers.
在许多集体主义或非西方文化中，社区、精神和家庭义务可能被视为基础性优先事项，有时出现在或接近“金字塔”的底部，而不是被归到更高层次。

Some cultures integrate spiritual fulfillment or communal welfare into their core survival needs, suggesting that people might see the entire group’s well-being as inseparable from their own.
一些文化将精神满足或公共福利融入其核心生存需求中，表明人们可能将整个群体的福祉视为与自身不可分割的一部分。

In these settings, “belongingness” isn’t just a step toward individual esteem—it’s often woven into everyday life.
在这些环境中，“归属感”不仅仅是通往个人尊重的一步——它通常融入到日常生活中。

3. Difficulty in Empirical Testing

3. 实证测试的困难

A primary criticism is that Maslow himself did not provide empirical work to support his hierarchy of needs.
主要的批评是马斯洛本人没有提供实证工作来支持他的需求层次。

This absence of empirical foundation from the originator made it inherently difficult for subsequent researchers to operationalise his theory effectively.
这种缺乏实证基础的情况使得后来的研究者很难有效地操作化他的理论。

Consequently, much of the widespread adoption and dissemination of his theory, often through the iconic pyramid, has occurred without a robust empirical basis for its claims.
因此，他的理论的广泛采用和传播，通常通过标志性的金字塔，是在没有对其主张进行强有力的实证基础的情况下进行的。

Furthermore, it is extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow’s concept of self-actualization in a way that causal relationships can be established.
此外，以一种可以建立因果关系的方式对马斯洛的自我实现概念进行实证测试是极其困难的。

Critics argue that his theory is more speculative than empirically proven, with a tendency to substitute rhetoric for rigorous research.
批评者认为，他的理论更多是推测性的，而不是实证证明的，倾向于用修辞来代替严谨的研究。

4. Rigid Progression of Needs?

4. 需求的僵化进程？

Another criticism concerns Maslow’s assumption that lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve self-actualization.
另一个批评涉及马斯洛的假设，即必须先满足较低的需求，个人才能实现自我实现。

Real-world observations show this is not always the case, leading some to claim parts of the hierarchy have been falsified.
现实世界的观察表明，情况并非总是如此，导致一些人声称需求层次的某些部分已被证伪。

In practice, lower-order deficiency needs are often negated to accomplish higher-order being or growth needs. Examples include athletes overtraining, individuals foregoing sleep for work deadlines, or teachers enduring cold classrooms to maintain learning (Rojas, 2023).
在实践中，常常会忽视低层次的缺失需求，以实现更高层次的存在或成长需求。例子包括运动员过度训练、个人为了工作截止日期放弃睡眠，或者教师忍受寒冷的教室以维持学习（罗哈斯，2023 年）。

These examples underscore that human motivation is far more dynamic and complex than the linear progression Maslow initially proposed.
这些例子强调，人类动机远比马斯洛最初提出的线性进程更加动态和复杂。

Rather than ascending a fixed ladder, individuals often simultaneously address multiple needs across different levels, influenced heavily by personal aspirations and situational demands.
与其说是沿着固定的梯子向上爬，不如说个人常常同时在不同层次上处理多种需求，受到个人抱负和情境需求的强烈影响。

Montag et al. (2020) provided empirical support for this flexibility by demonstrating through a large-scale survey that many individuals prioritize social and esteem needs highly, even in situations where lower-level physiological and safety needs were not fully satisfied.
蒙塔格等人（2020 年）通过大规模调查提供了这种灵活性的实证支持，表明许多人在低层次的生理需求和安全需求尚未完全满足的情况下，仍然高度重视社交和尊重需求。

Furthermore, cross-cultural evidence from Tay and Diener (2011) indicates that individuals in poverty-stricken regions frequently pursue and fulfill higher-order social needs such as love, belonging, and esteem despite unresolved basic physiological or safety needs.
此外，泰和迪纳（2011 年）的跨文化证据表明，生活在贫困地区的个体经常追求并满足更高层次的社会需求，如爱、归属和尊重，尽管基本的生理需求或安全需求尚未得到解决。

This research challenges Maslow’s claim of a universal sequential hierarchy.
这些研究挑战了马斯洛关于普遍顺序层次结构的说法。

Additionally, historical examples of prominent creative individuals, including artists like Rembrandt and Van Gogh, demonstrate that self-actualization or profound creative expression can flourish even amidst severe material deprivation.
此外，包括伦勃朗和梵高在内的杰出创意个体的历史例子表明，即使在严重的物质匮乏中，自我实现或深刻的创造性表达也能蓬勃发展。

These observations and studies challenge the rigidity of Maslow’s hierarchy, suggesting that human needs and motivations are better understood as interrelated and overlapping rather than strictly hierarchical.
这些观察和研究表明，马斯洛的需求层次是僵化的，建议人类需求和动机最好被理解为相互关联和重叠的，而不是严格层次化的。

5. Modern Pluralistic View of Motivation

5. 现代多元化的动机观

Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as pluralistic, people can experience multiple needs simultaneously (Wahba & Bridwell, 1973).
心理学家现在将动机视为多元化的，人们可以同时体验多种需求（瓦哈巴和布里奇韦尔，1973 年）。

Contemporary research by Tay and Diener (2011) supports the idea that universal human needs do exist, but they do not necessarily follow Maslow’s strict order.
泰和迪纳（2011 年）的当代研究表明，普遍的人类需求确实存在，但它们并不一定遵循马斯洛的严格顺序。

Tay and Diener tested Maslow’s theory by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing every major region of the world. The survey was conducted from 2005 to 2010.
泰和迪纳通过分析来自 123 个国家的 60865 名参与者的数据来测试马斯洛的理论，这些国家代表了世界上的每一个主要地区。调查从 2005 年持续到 2010 年。

Their large-scale study found that although basic needs tend to receive the most attention when unmet, people still benefit from meeting higher needs (e.g., social connections, respect) even when lower needs remain unfulfilled.
他们大规模的研究发现，尽管当基本需求未得到满足时往往会受到最多的关注，但即使低层次的需求仍未得到满足，人们仍然可以从满足更高层次的需求（例如社交联系、尊重）中受益。

Diener compares needs to “vitamins”: we can experience well-being from multiple needs at once, even if some remain only partially satisfied.
迪纳将需求比作“维生素”：我们可以在同一时间从多种需求中体验到幸福感，即使有些需求只得到部分满足。

Respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble those in Maslow’s model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs (love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy.
受访者回答了关于六个需求的问题，这些需求与马斯洛模型中的需求非常相似：基本需求（食物、住所）；安全；社会需求（爱、支持）；尊重；掌握；自主。

They also rated their well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person’s view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of sorrow, anger, or stress).
他们还从三个不同的维度评估了自己的幸福感：生活评价（一个人对他或她的整个生活的看法）、积极情感（日常的快乐或愉悦的实例）和消极情感（日常的悲伤、愤怒或压力的体验）。

The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was not correct.
研究结果支持了普遍的人类需求似乎无论文化差异都存在的观点。然而，需求在层次结构中的顺序并不正确。

“Although the most basic needs might get the most attention when you don’t have them,” Diener explains, “you don’t need to fulfill them in order to get benefits [from the others].”
“尽管当你没有它们时，最基本的需求可能会得到最多的关注，”迪纳解释说，“你不需要满足它们，才能从其他需求中获得好处。”

Even when we are hungry, for instance, we can be happy with our friends. “They’re like vitamins,” Diener says about how the needs work independently. “We need them all.”

例如，即使我们饿了，我们也可以和朋友在一起感到快乐。“它们就像维生素，”迪纳说，需求是独立起作用的。“我们需要它们全部。”

6. Mental Health Contexts

6. 心理健康背景

Maslow’s hierarchy has proven valuable in mental health research and practice, offering insight into patient goals and system priorities.
马斯洛的需求层次在心理健康研究和实践中被证明是很有价值的，它为患者目标和系统优先事项提供了见解。

A 2015 mixed-methods study by Derejko et al. applied Maslow’s theory to homeless adults with serious mental illness entering housing programs.
2015 年，德雷科等人进行了一项混合方法研究，将马斯洛的理论应用于进入住房项目的患有严重精神疾病的无家可归的成年人。

Quantitatively, the researchers found a counterintuitive result: individuals who still lacked basic necessities were often more likely to voice self-actualization goals (such as pursuing education or creative ambitions), rather than focusing exclusively on securing food and shelter.
从定量角度来看，研究人员发现了一个反直觉的结果：仍然缺乏基本必需品的个体往往_更_有可能表达自我实现的目标（例如追求教育或创造性抱负），而不是专注于确保食物和住所。

Qualitative interviews revealed a complex interplay between basic and higher needs – many participants continued striving for meaning and personal growth even while some fundamental needs were unmet.
定性访谈揭示了基本需求和更高需求之间的复杂相互作用——许多参与者在一些基本需求未得到满足的情况下，仍在努力追求意义和个人成长。

These findings suggest that, in the context of extreme hardship, people do not always follow a strict stepwise needs progression.
这些发现表明，在极度困难的背景下，人们并不总是遵循严格的需求逐步进程。

The authors argue that recovery-oriented care should be highly person-centered, helping clients pursue higher goals alongside efforts to meet basic needs.
作者认为，以康复为导向的护理应该是高度以人为中心的，帮助客户在努力满足基本需求的同时追求更高目标。

In other words, mental health services should not assume that no self-improvement goals exist until housing and food are secured; often, the aspiration for purpose and self-worth persists and can be harnessed as part of the recovery process.
换句话说，心理健康服务不应假设在确保住房和食物之前不存在任何自我提升目标；很多时候，对于目标和自我价值的追求一直存在，并且可以在康复过程中加以利用。

Zheng et al. (2016), using neuropsychological evidence, proposed a reordering of Maslow’s hierarchy for mental disorders.
郑等人（2016 年）利用神经心理学证据，提出了针对精神障碍的马斯洛需求层次的重新排序。

They prioritize safety needs above physiological needs.
他们将安全需求置于生理需求之上。

This is because chronic insecurity is a key factor in anxiety, depression, and trauma-related disorders.
这是因为长期的不安全感是焦虑、抑郁和创伤相关障碍的一个关键因素。

The brain’s safety circuitry (amygdala and stress response) demonstrates how a lack of safety triggers severe distress.
大脑的安全回路（杏仁核和应激反应）表明缺乏安全感是如何引发严重痛苦的。

Essentially, they suggest “flipping” Maslow’s bottom two layers, making safety (absence of violence, financial stability, health security) the primary need for mental well-being.
本质上，他们建议“翻转”马斯洛的最底层两个层次，使安全（没有暴力、经济稳定、健康安全）成为心理健康的主要需求。

This implies that mental health interventions and social policies should prioritize establishing safety as a foundation for other interventions (healthcare, social support, therapy).
这意味着心理健康干预和社会政策应该优先建立安全，作为其他干预措施（医疗保健、社会支持、治疗）的基础。

7. Alternate Motivation Theories

7. 替代的动机理论

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

奥尔德弗的 ERG 理论

ERG theory offers a more flexible and dynamic model, allowing for overlapping needs and acknowledging that people often navigate back and forth between need levels based on circumstances -something Maslow hinted at but never emphasized as strongly.
ERG 理论提供了一个更具灵活性和动态性的模型，允许需求重叠，并承认人们通常会根据情况在需求层次之间来回导航——这是马斯洛暗示过但从未如此强调的事情。

Alderfer (1969) proposed three core categories of needs: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG):
奥尔德弗（1969 年）提出了三个核心需求类别：存在（Existence）、关联（Relatedness）和成长（Growth，简称 ERG）：

Existence Needs (E) – covering basic material and physiological requirements (food, water, shelter, safety).
存在需求（E）——涵盖基本的物质和生理需求（食物、水、住所、安全）。
Relatedness Needs ® – encompassing interpersonal relationships and social connections (love, belonging).
关联需求（R）——包括人际关系和社交联系（爱、归属）。
Growth Needs (G) – focusing on personal development and self-fulfillment (parallels self-actualization).
成长需求（G）——专注于个人发展和自我实现（类似于自我实现）。

How It Compares to Maslow:

与马斯洛理论的比较：

Simultaneous vs. Sequential: Unlike Maslow’s largely sequential framework, ERG theory posits that individuals can pursue multiple levels of needs at the same time.
同时性与顺序性：与马斯洛主要的顺序性框架不同，ERG 理论认为个人可以同时追求多个层次的需求。
Frustration-Regression Hypothesis: If higher-level needs (Growth) are not met, people may refocus on lower-level (Existence or Relatedness) needs with renewed intensity, rather than simply stalling.
挫折-回归假设：如果更高层次的需求（成长）没有得到满足，人们可能会重新集中精力于更低层次（存在或关联）的需求，并且强度会重新增强，而不是简单地停滞不前。
Flexibility: Because ERG theory does not require that one need be “fully satisfied” before addressing another, it can accommodate cultural and personal variations more readily.
灵活性：因为 ERG 理论并不要求在处理另一个需求之前必须“完全满足”一个需求，所以它可以更容易地适应文化和个人差异。

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

赫茨伯格的双因素理论

Herzberg’s theory parallels Maslow’s distinction between basic (deficiency) needs and growth (fulfillment) needs but emphasizes that satisfying lower needs only neutralizes dissatisfaction.
赫茨伯格的理论与马斯洛对基本（缺失）需求和成长（满足）需求的区分相呼应，但强调满足较低的需求只能中和不满。

True motivation emerges from meeting “higher” motivators.
真正的激励来自于满足“更高”的激励因素。

Hygiene Factors: Elements like salary, job security, and working conditions, which, if missing, cause dissatisfaction but do not necessarily motivate people when present.
保健因素：诸如薪酬、工作保障和工作条件等要素，如果缺失，会导致不满，但当存在时并不一定能激励人们。
Motivators (Satisfiers): Factors such as recognition, responsibility, and personal growth, which genuinely drive motivation and satisfaction when they are fulfilled.
激励因素（满足因素）：诸如认可、责任和个人成长等因素，当它们得到满足时，真正推动激励和满足。

How It Compares to Maslow:

与马斯洛理论的比较：

Overlap with Lower vs. Higher Needs: Hygiene factors resemble Maslow’s lower-level needs (physiological and safety), while motivators align with higher-level needs (esteem, self-actualization).
与低层次需求和高层次需求的重叠：保健因素类似于马斯洛的低层次需求（生理需求和安全需求），而激励因素与高层次需求（尊重需求和自我实现需求）相一致。
Importance of Elimination of Dissatisfaction: Herzberg argues that removing negative conditions (e.g., poor work environment) does not automatically result in motivation—workers need motivators for true engagement.
消除不满的重要性：赫茨伯格认为，消除负面条件（例如，糟糕的工作环境）并不一定会导致激励——工人需要激励因素才能真正投入。
Focus on Workplace: Herzberg’s theory is often applied in organizational settings, whereas Maslow’s model has broader applications, from education to personal development.
关注工作场所：赫茨伯格的理论通常应用于组织环境，而马斯洛的模型有更广泛的应用，从教育到个人发展。

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

自我决定理论（德西和瑞安）

Deci and Ryan (1985) proposed that individuals have three fundamental psychological needs: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness:
德西和瑞安（1985 年）提出，个人有三个基本的心理需求：自主性、能力感和关联性：

Autonomy: Feeling in control of one’s actions and decisions.
自主性：对自己行为和决策的控制感。
Competence: Feeling capable and effective in interacting with the environment.
能力感：在与环境互动中感到有能力且有效。
Relatedness: Feeling connected and supported by others.
关联性：感到与他人有联系并得到支持。

SDT shifts attention from a layered progression to a holistic view of motivation, suggesting that personal growth and well-being arise from the constant interplay of autonomy, competence, and relatedness—regardless of one’s stage in a hierarchy.
SDT 将注意力从分层进程转移到一个整体的动机观上，认为个人成长和幸福感来自于自主性、能力感和关联性的持续相互作用——无论一个人在层次结构中的哪个阶段。

How It Compares to Maslow:

与马斯洛理论的比较：

Not Strictly Hierarchical: Deci and Ryan propose that humans continuously seek autonomy, competence, and relatedness; no single need must be fully addressed before another becomes important.
并非严格层次化：德西和瑞安提出，人类持续寻求自主性、能力感和关联性；在另一个需求变得重要之前，并不需要完全满足某个需求。
Intrinsic Motivation Focus: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) spotlights how internal drives (e.g., genuine interest, personal values) fuel learning, well-being, and performance, rather than prioritizing external factors like pay or status.
内在动机关注：自我决定理论（SDT）强调内部驱动力（例如，真正的兴趣、个人价值观）如何推动学习、幸福感和表现，而不是优先考虑薪酬或地位等外部因素。
Cross-Cultural Flexibility: SDT has been explored extensively across different cultures, suggesting these three needs are universal and can be pursued simultaneously, an idea that overlaps with and expands Maslow’s “growth” dimensions.
跨文化灵活性：SDT 在不同文化中得到了广泛的研究，表明这三种需求是普遍的，并且可以同时追求，这一观点与马斯洛的“成长”维度相重叠并扩展。

Kaufman’s Sailboat Metaphor (2020)

考夫曼的帆船隐喻（2020 年）

Psychologist Scott Barry Kaufman, in his book “Transcend: The New Science of Self-Actualization,” proposed replacing Maslow’s pyramid with a sailboat metaphor to represent human needs.
心理学家斯科特·巴里·考夫曼在他的书《超越：自我实现的新科学》中提出，用帆船隐喻取代马斯洛的金字塔来代表人类需求。

Kaufman differentiates between two core categories of needs: security and growth.
考夫曼区分了两个核心需求类别：安全和成长。

Security Needs (Hull): These combine Maslow’s foundational needs—safety, connection/belonging, and self-esteem—forming the stable “hull” that keeps individuals afloat and secure.
安全需求（船体）：这些结合了马斯洛的基础需求——安全、联系/归属和自尊——形成了稳定的“船体”，使个人保持漂浮和安全。
Growth Needs (Sail): These include exploration, love, and purpose, represented as a “sail” that propels individuals forward once their foundational security needs are stable.
成长需求（帆）：这些包括探索、爱和目标，一旦基础安全需求稳定，它们就像“帆”一样推动个人前进。

How It Compares to Maslow:

与马斯洛理论的比较：

Overlap with Lower vs. Higher Needs: Kaufman’s security needs directly align with Maslow’s lower-level needs（生理需求、安全需求、社交联系和自尊）。His growth needs parallel Maslow’s higher-order needs, specifically self-actualization and transcendence.
与低层次需求和高层次需求的重叠：考夫曼的安全需求直接与马斯洛的低层次需求（生理需求、安全需求、社交联系和自尊）相一致。他的成长需求与马斯洛的更高层次需求相呼应，特别是自我实现和超越。
Dynamic and Non-Linear Approach: Unlike Maslow’s hierarchical pyramid, Kaufman emphasizes a continuous balance between security and growth rather than sequential steps. Individuals constantly manage foundational security while pursuing personal and meaningful growth.
动态和非线性方法：与马斯洛的层次金字塔不同，考夫曼强调在安全和成长之间保持持续的平衡，而不是顺序步骤。个人在追求个人和有意义的成长的同时，不断管理基础安全。
Inclusion of Self-Transcendence: Kaufman explicitly includes self-transcendence (pursuing purpose beyond oneself), reflecting Maslow’s later thoughts and extending the original hierarchy by integrating modern positive psychology and evolutionary research.
包含自我超越：考夫曼明确包括自我超越（追求超越自我的目标），反映了马斯洛的后期思想，并通过整合现代积极心理学和进化研究，扩展了原始层次结构。

Summary of Comparisons

比较总结

Hierarchy vs. Overlap:
- Maslow mainly argued a loose progression (lower to higher needs).
  马斯洛主要主张一个松散的进程（从低层次需求到高层次需求）。
- Alderfer and SDT allow multiple needs to coexist, granting greater flexibility.
  奥尔德弗和SDT允许多种需求共存，提供了更大的灵活性。
- Herzberg splits conditions into hygiene factors (removing dissatisfaction) and motivators (driving satisfaction).
  赫茨伯格将条件分为保健因素（消除不满）和激励因素（驱动满意度）。
Deficiency vs. Growth:
- Maslow and Herzberg both highlight the difference between meeting basic needs (preventing dissatisfaction) and pursuing higher-level fulfillment.
  马斯洛和赫茨伯格都强调满足基本需求（防止不满）和追求更高层次满足之间的区别。
- Alderfer’s Growth and SDT’s Competence/Autonomy similarly emphasize advanced, self-directed pursuits.
  奥尔德弗的成长需求和SDT 的能力/自主性同样强调高级的、自我导向的追求。
Cultural & Individual Variations:
- Alderfer and SDT more explicitly account for individual and cultural differences in the order or prominence of needs.
  奥尔德弗和SDT更明确地考虑了需求顺序或重要性方面的个体和文化差异。
- Maslow acknowledged flexibility but still proposed a somewhat universal pattern.
  马斯洛承认了灵活性，但仍然提出了一个相对普遍的模式。

Conclusion

结论

Maslow’s theory differs from more purely physiological representations of human motivation because motivation is seen as being not just concerned with tension reduction and survival but also with human growth and development.
马斯洛的理论与更纯粹的生理学人类动机表现不同，因为动机被认为不仅仅是关注紧张的缓解和生存，还关注人类的成长和发展。

While Maslow’s work was indeed relatively informal and clinically descriptive, it did provide a rich source of ideas, and as such, a framework for discussing the richness and complexity of human motivation that goes beyond homeostatic models and other biological models.
尽管马斯洛的工作确实相对非正式且具有临床描述性，但它确实提供了一个丰富的思想源泉，因此，它为讨论超越稳态模型和其他生理模型的人类动机的丰富性和复杂性提供了一个框架。

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https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15240897

马斯洛需求层次理论模型

雪峰成长发布于 2018-08-03 09:14・北京

美国心理学家亚伯拉罕·马斯洛（Maslow, A. H.）从人类动机视角提出需求层次理论。该理论核心观点为：人的动机由需求决定，且在任一特定时期，总有一种需求占据主导地位，其余需求则处于从属地位。

马斯洛将人的需求划分为五个层次，依次为生理需求、安全需求、归属与爱的需求、尊重需求及自我实现需求。这五个层次的需求遵循由低到高的顺序逐步形成并得以满足。

在马斯洛的理论框架中，生理需求未得到满足的个体（如饥肠辘辘者），其核心目标是获取食物以维持生存；安全需求缺失的个体，其行为驱动力聚焦于寻求生命安全保障；归属与爱的需求、尊重需求亦遵循此逻辑——若该层次需求未被满足，个体将产生显著的缺失感。而“自我实现”被视为“少数人践行的路径”，仅当低层次需求得到实质性满足后，个体才更易迈向自我实现的阶段。