通用学术英语第五单元课文翻译

Unit 5

STUDY TIP（P114）

A summary is a condensed version of the original text that highlights the main or key ideas in your own words. It is a core academic skill and is frequently used. For example, to gather information for a paper, you can summarise the sources. Another option is direct quotation. The use of direct quotation ensures accuracy, but writing out a direct quotation can be a waste of time if you do not plan to use it in your writing or if you merely copy information without fully understanding it. The use of summary rather than direct quotation forces you to comprehend as you read and leads naturally to an evaluation of the original text or your own viewpoint on a certain issue.

摘要是用你自己的话对原文进行的浓缩，旨在突出其主要或核心观点。这是一项核心学术技能，且经常被使用。例如，在为论文收集资料时，你可以对文献来源进行摘要总结。另一个选择是直接引用。直接引用能确保准确性，但如果你不打算在写作中使用它，或者只是在没有完全理解的情况下照搬信息，那么抄录直接引文可能会浪费你的时间。与直接引用相比，使用摘要会促使你在阅读时真正去理解，并自然地引导你对原文进行评价，或形成自己对某个问题的看法。

P116-P117

Landscape history improves detection of marginal habitats on semi-natural grasslands

景观历史提高了半自然草原上边缘生境的检测

Abstract摘要

①Semi-natural grassland habitats have markedly declined from their historical coverage, thus causing substantial losses for agricultural biodiversity and establishing a consequent need to spot the remaining habitat patches.

②These patches are generally remnants of once larger habitat areas, formed by uninterrupted and low-intensity management for centuries, but then later being isolated and fragmented into smaller pieces.

③In the light of this development, past landscape phases have a crucial role for the present existence of semi-natural grasslands.

④The importance of historical factors has been indicated in many studies but evaluation of their added value, or actual site-specific effects compared to observations of only the present landscape characteristics, is not generally provided.

⑤As data related to the past is often difficult to obtain, tedious to process and challenging to interpret, assessment of its advantages and related effects – or consequences of potential exclusion – would be needed.

①半自然草原生境已从历史覆盖范围显著减少，从而导致农业生物多样性遭受重大损失，并由此产生了识别剩余生境斑块的需求。

②这些斑块通常是曾经更大生境区域的残余部分，由数百年不间断的低强度管理形成，但后来被隔离并破碎成更小的碎片。

③鉴于这一发展历程，过去的景观阶段对半自然草原的当前存在具有关键作用。

④许多研究已指出历史因素的重要性，但相较于仅观察当前景观特征，对其附加价值或实际场地特定效应的评估通常未被提供。

⑤由于与过去相关的数据通常难以获取、处理繁琐且解读具有挑战性，因此对其优势及相关效应—或潜在排除该数据的后果—进行评估将是必要的。

⑥ In this study, we used maximum entropy approach to model the distribution of Fumewort (Corydalis solida) which in the study area is a good indicator of valuable semi-natural habitats.

⑦ We constructed three different models – one based on only the contemporary environment with expected indicators of habitat stability, one solely on the historical landscape phases and long-term dynamics, and one combining variables from the past and the present.

⑧ Predictions of the three models were validated and compared with each other, followed by an analysis indicating the similarity of model results with known Fumewort occurrences.

⑨ Our results indicate that present landscapes may provide workable surrogates to delineate larger core habitats, but utilisation of historical data markedly improves the detection of small outlying patches.

⑩ These conclusions emphasise the importance of previous landscape phases particularly in detecting marginal semi-natural grassland habitats, existing in contemporarily suboptimal conditions and being prone to disappear if no further actions are taken.

⑥ 在这项研究中，我们使用最大熵方法来模拟研究区域内的熏烟草（罂粟科植物）分布，这在研究区域是半自然栖息地价值的良好指标。

⑦ 我们构建了三种不同的模型——一种仅基于当代环境及其预期的栖息地稳定性指标，一种仅基于历史景观阶段和长期动态，还有一种结合了过去和现在的变量。

⑧ 三种模型的预测结果经过验证并相互比较，随后进行了分析，表明模型结果与已知熏烟草出现情况的相似性。

⑨ 我们的结果表明，当前景观可能提供可行的替代方案来划定更大的核心栖息地，但利用历史数据显著提高了对小型外围斑块的检测。

⑩ 这些结论强调了以前景观阶段的重要性，特别是在检测边缘半自然草地栖息地方面，这些栖息地存在于当代次优条件下，如果不采取进一步行动，可能会消失。

STUDY TIP（P117)

Depending on the context in which a summary is used, its purpose, and the potential audience, a summary can be of various length. While the primary purpose is to help understand and retain information as you collect it, a summary can be used to inform your readers, substantiate your claim, and refer to previous studies. There are some conventions to follow when you summarise: Only the main points should be included; It should be faithful to the original text and not twist the original meaning; and it should not include personal opinions or responses.

根据摘要的使用语境、目的以及潜在受众的不同，摘要的长度可以各异。虽然摘要的主要目的是在你收集信息时帮你助理解并记住这些信息，但它也可用于向读者传达内容、证实你的主张，以及引用先前的研究。进行总结时有一些惯例需要遵循：只应包含主要观点；要忠实于原文，不能歪曲原意；且不应包含个人观点或回应。

Avian Flight (P118）

Perhaps the most characteristic feature of avian flight is the cyclic wing beat during powered flight. Wings not only flap up and down but also fold, stretch, rotate, and change speed. The description of these movements can be made with respect to the body, in relation to the air around the bird or in an earthbound frame of reference. Kinematical analysis concentrates on changes of position as a function of time without reference to forces. The kinematics of animal flight must be studied three-dimensional because the movements are made in all three directions in an x-y-z orthogonal frame of reference. Wing beat cycles have been studied under standard conditions and with some experimentally controlled changes in search for stereotypic aspects. Detailed analysis of a single wing beat of a small bird emphasises the existence of unsteady effects. We try to find out if there are general rules for flapping flight which are obeyed by most species.

也许鸟类飞行的最显著特征是动力飞行期间的周期性翅膀跳动。翅膀不仅上下拍打，还可以折叠、拉伸、旋转和改变速度。这些运动的描述可以与身体、鸟类周围的空气或地球参考框架中进行。运动学的分析专注于作为时间函数的位置变化，没有参考力量。动物飞行的运动学必须进行三维研究，因为运动都是在x-y-z正交参考系中向所有三个方向进行的。机翼节拍周期是在标准条件下研究的，并有一些实验控制的变化来寻找刻板的方面。对小鸟单翼节拍的详细分析强调了不稳效应的存在。我们试图找出是否有大多数物种遵守的扑腾飞行的一般规则。

Text 1 (P121)

①Wetlands are among the most important ecosystems on Earth. In the great scheme of things, the swampy environment of the Carboniferous period produced and preserved many of the fossil fuels on which our society now depends. In more recent biological and human time periods, wetlands have been valuable sources, sinks, and transformers of a multitude of chemical, biological, and genetic materials. Although the value of wetlands for fish and wildlife protection has been known for a century, some of the other benefits have been identified more recently.

湿地是地球上最重要的生态系统之一。从宏观角度看，石炭纪的沼泽环境生成并保存了许多化石燃料，如今我们的社会依赖这些化石燃料。在近代的生物发展时期和人类历史阶段，湿地一直是多种化学、生物和遗传物质的重要源地、汇区和转化场所。尽管湿地在鱼类和野生动物保护方面的价值已为人所知长达一个世纪，但湿地的其他一些益处是近些年才被认识到的。

②Wetlands are sometimes described as “the kidneys of the landscape” because they function as the downstream receivers of the water and waste from both natural and human sources. They stabilise water supplies, thus ameliorating both floods and drought. They have been found to cleanse polluted waters, protect shorelines, and recharge groundwater aquifers.

湿地有时被称为 “景观之肾”，因为它们就像下游的接收器，承接来自自然和人为源头的水与废弃物。湿地能稳定水资源供应，从而缓解洪水和干旱问题。人们发现湿地还可以净化受污染的水、保护海岸线以及补给地下水含水层。

③Wetlands also have been called ecological supermarkets" because of the extensive food chain and rich biodiversity that they support. They play major roles in the landscape by providing unique habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna. Now that we have become concerned about the health of our entire planet, wetlands are being described by some as important carbon sinks and climate stabilisers on a global scale.

湿地也被称为"生态超市"，因为它们支持着广泛的食物链和丰富的生物多样性。通过为各种各样的动植物提供独特的栖息地，湿地在景观中发挥着重要作用。如今，我们已开始关注整个地球的健康，有人将湿地描述为全球范围内重要的碳汇和气候稳定器。  

④These values of wetlands are now recognised worldwide and have led to wetland conservation, protection laws, regulations, and management plans. But our history with wetlands had been to drain, ditch, and fill them, never as quickly or as effectively as was undertaken in countries such as the United States beginning in the mid-1800s.

湿地的这些价值如今已得到全球认可，并促成了湿地保护、法律、法规和管理计划的制定。但人类与湿地的过往关系，一直是排干、开沟和填埋湿地——尽管从未像美国等国家在19世纪中叶开始的那样迅速或高效地进行过。

⑤Wetlands have become the cause célèbre for conservation-minded people and organizations throughout the world, in prat because they have become symptoms of our systematic dismantling of our water resources and in part because their disappearance represents an easily recognizable loss of natural areas to economic “progress.” Scientists, engineers, lawyers, and regulators are now finding it both useful and necessary to become specialists in wetland ecology and wetland management in order to understand, preserve, and even reconstruct these fragile ecosystems. This book is for these aspiring wetland specialists, as well as for those who would like to know more about the structure and function of these unique ecosystems. It is a book about wetlands-how they work and how we manage them.

湿地近年来成为全球环境保护人士与组织高度关注的焦点。这一方面是因为湿地的退化反映了人类对水资源系统性破坏的严重后果；另一方面，湿地的消失也代表着自然生态空间在经济“发展”进程中显而易见的流失。当前，科学家、工程师、法律工作者及监管机构日益认识到，系统掌握湿地生态学与湿地管理的专业知识，不仅十分必要，而且具有重要现实意义。这有助于更深入地理解、有效地保护，甚至科学地修复这一类脆弱而独特的生态系统。本书旨在为有志于投身湿地研究与实践的专业人员提供系统指导，同时也面向广大希望了解湿地生态结构与功能的读者。全书围绕湿地的运行机制与管理策略展开，力图为湿地生态系统的可持续保护与科学管理提供理论依据与实践参考。

Text 2 (P126)

1.Introduction

Wetlands function as part of the landscape with or without the presence of humans. They have value because many of their functions have proved to be useful to humans. We (Mitsch & Gosselink, 1993) summarised this point: “The reasons that wetlands are often legally protected have to do with their value to society, not with the abstruse ecological processes that occur in wetlands... Perceived values arise out of the functional ecological processes... but are also determined by human perceptions, the location of a particular wetland, the human population pressures on it, and the extent of the resource.” In that book (Mitsch & Gosselink, 1993/2000) we went on to suggest a few general principles that should be remembered when attempting to estimate the value of wetlands.

1.引言

湿地作为景观的一部分，无论人类是否存在，它都发挥着作用。湿地的价值在于其许多功能已被证明对人类有益。我们（米奇和戈塞林克, 1993）对此总结道：“湿地常受法律保护的原因与其对社会的价值有关，而非湿地中发生的深奥生态过程……感知价值源于功能性生态过程……但也取决于人类的认知、特定湿地的位置、人类对其施加的人口压力以及资源的丰富程度。”在书中（米奇和戈塞林克, 1993/2000），我们进一步提出了几条在评估湿地价值时应牢记的基本原则。

1.1. Wetlands are multiple - value systems

Wetlands do not just do one thing. They perform many processes simultaneously and therefore they provide a suite of values to humans. Optimising for one is usually at the expense of another.

1. 1. 湿地是多元价值系统 

湿地并非仅具备单一功能。它们同时执行多种过程，因此为人类提供了一系列价值。优化某一功能通常以牺牲其他功能为代价。

1.2. Most valuable “products” of wetlands provide values in perpetuity.

While wetlands do provide economic “pay off” to individuals, mainly through the population values described above, most of the services of wetlands accrue to the public at large. Thus wetland protection is, properly, the domain of a representative government working in concert with private landowners. Compensation for these values has become a controversial topic.

1.2. 湿地最有价值的“产品”提供了永久的价值

湿地虽然确实能为个人带来一定的经济收益（主要通过上述提到的人口价值实现），但其提供的大部分服务却是惠及社会公众的。因此，湿地保护工作理应属于一个代表性政府机构与土地私有者共同协作的领域，而针对这些生态价值的补偿机制已成为颇具争议的话题。

1.3. The relationship between wetland area and marginal value is complex.

Traditional economics supports the general concept that the less there is of some commodity, the more valuable it is. This is the general economic law of scarcity. The concept sometimes applies to wetlands. When there are extensive wetlands in a given area (e.g. the Louisiana delta, the Everglades area in Florida) the conversion of wetlands to other uses is often viewed as a social necessity because there are many more available wetlands elsewhere. In areas where almost all natural wetlands have been drained (e.g. Europe, Midwestern USA, etc.), the desire to conserve what few wetlands are left is often very strong. However, the idea of wetland conservation does not always work even in areas where almost all natural wetlands have been drained, and where critical thresholds exist that define the minimum ecologically acceptable amount of wetlands in a given region. If wetlands are too small, functions such as support of certain mammals or storage of floodwater (for mitigation of floods) no longer exist.

1.3. 湿地面积与边际价值之间的关系是复杂的

传统经济学支持这样一个普遍观点：某种商品的供应越少，其价值就越高。这就是稀缺性这一普遍的经济法则。该理论有时也适用于湿地生态系统：当某一特定区域存在大面积湿地时（如路易斯安那三角洲、佛罗里达州大沼泽地），由于其他区域仍有大量可用湿地资源，将湿地转为其他用途常被视为社会发展的必然需求；而在自然湿地几乎消失殆尽的地区（如欧洲、美国中西部等），保护残余湿地的意愿往往异常强烈。但值得注意的是，即便在湿地几乎完全消失的地区以及存在关键阈值的地区（这些阈值定义了特定区域生态上可接受的湿地最低数量），湿地保护理念也未必总能落实。若湿地面积过小，其为特定哺乳动物提供栖息地或调蓄洪水（以减轻洪灾影响）等生态功能将不复存在。

1.4. Comparison of short-term economic gain from a non-wetland commercial use of a piece of landscape, with long-term wetland values is often not appropriate

Wetland functions and thus values have the potential to last for a very long time. Modern agriculture or industrial/commercial activity are generally unsustainable and resource-depleting (soil loss; use of fossil fuels) so the lifetime of these human based alternatives is short-lived. Even large public works projects have time spans of 50 -100 years. A corollary of this point is that once wetlands are lost through development, the loss of their functions and values is often irreversible.
    1.4将某片土地用于非湿地商业用途所带来的短期经济收益，与湿地的长期价值进行比较，往往并不恰当

湿地的功能及其所具有的价值有可能长久维持。现代农业或工商业活动通常属于不可持续的资源消耗型活动（会导致土壤流失、消耗化石燃料等问题），因此这些基于人类活动的替代方式存续时间较短。即便大型公共工程项目，其使用期限也往往在50至100年之间。由此可得出一个必然结论：湿地一旦因开发活动而消失，其功能和价值的丧失往往是不可逆转的。

1.5. Commercial values are finite, whereas wetlands provide values in penenty

The social trap of assigning value to wetlands, in addition to the danger of comparing ecosystems, is that it will always be possible to find a more profitable use for the land if short-term economic analyses are made. For example, wetland value estimates cannot compete very well with the economic return of corn and soybeans in the Midwestern USA so drainage will always be economically favored over wetland conservation if traditional cost-benefit analysis is carried out.
        1.5商业价值是有限的，而湿地提供的价值却是持久的

给湿地定价存在一个社会陷阱，除了生态系统比较带来的风险外，若仅进行短期经济分析，人们总能为土地找到经济效益更高的用途。例如，在美国中西部，湿地价值估算很难与玉米和大豆的经济收益相抗衡，因此，若采用传统成本效益分析，排干湿地进行开发在经济上往往比保护湿地更具优势。

1.6 Values are influenced by cultural bias and economic system

There are good reasons why we wish to protect nature; developed countries, having taken care of the basic needs of their citizens, are particularly involved in protecting ecosystems, including wetlands, for their aesthetic as well as more functional attributes, not all of which translate into direct economic benefit. Other cultures, where the basic needs of food and shelter cannot be taken for granted, have a different view of the economics of wetlands. Many cultures do live in and among wetlands and use them for daily subsistence—the production of food and fiber. Yet they generally leave the normal wetland functions intact. The values that we ascribe to wetlands are not separate from the institutions and culture from which we come.

1.6（湿地的）价值受文化偏见和经济体系的影响

我们希望保护自然是有充分理由的；发达国家已经满足了其公民的基本需求，因此尤其参与到对生态系统（包括湿地）的保护中，既为了生态系统的美学属性，也为了其更多的功能属性，并非所有这些属性都能转化为直接的经济效益。在其他文化中，食物和住所等基本需求并非理所当然能得到满足，因此对湿地的经济价值有着不同的看法。许多文化群体确实生活在湿地之中或周边，并将湿地用于日常生计——生产食物和纤维。然而，他们通常会让湿地的正常功能保持完整。我们赋予湿地的价值与我们所处的制度和文化是密不可分的。

Ascribing economic value to wetlands has been an exercise frequently practiced in the past 25 years. Starting with the publication of “The Southern River Swamp—A Multiple-use Environment” (Wharton, 1970) and “The Value of the Tidal Marsh” (Gosselink et al., 1974), a significant number of papers have discussed attributed values to wetlands for the services that they provide (e.g. Mitsch, 1977; Farber & Costanza, 1987; Costanza et al., 1989; Turner, 1991; Barbier, 1994; Gren et al., 1994; Gren, 1994; Bell, 1997). Costanza et al. (1997) took these types of calculations one step further by estimating the public service functions of all the earth’s ecosystems, including wetlands.

在过去的25年里，给湿地赋予经济价值是一项经常开展的实践。从“南部河流沼泽——一个多用途环境”（沃顿,1970）和“潮汐沼泽的价值”（戈斯林克等人,1974）的发表开始，大量论文探讨了湿地因为其所提供的服务而具有的属性价值（如米施,1977；法伯和科斯坦萨,1987；科斯坦萨等人,1989；特纳,1991；巴比尔,1994；格伦等人,1994；格伦,1994；贝尔,1997）。科斯坦萨等人（1997）通过估测包括湿地在内的地球所有生态系统的公共服务功能，将这些经济价值的计算向前推进了一步。

This paper considers a number of landscape and scale phenomena that make generalizations about wetland values particularly difficult. These include the following:

(1) The scale principle

(2) The marginal value paradox

(3) The hydrogeomorphic principle

(4) The ecosystem substitution paradox

Given these phenomena, the paper then considers the question of how much area of a watershed needs to be wetland for certain watershed-scale ecosystem values to occur.

本文考虑了一些使得对湿地价值进行概括尤为困难的地貌和湿地规模现象。其中包括以下几点：

（1）规模原理

（2）边际价值悖论

（3）水文地貌原理

（4）生态系统替代悖论

考虑到这些现象，本文随后探讨了这样一个问题：为了达到特定的流域规模生态系统价值，一个流域需要有多大面积的湿地。

STUDY TIP（P138)

Reporting verbs are a type of attributive tag. Other than such verbs, attributive tags also include leading phrases which signal to the reader that a quotation, summary, or paraphrase is someone else's idea. They give credit to the original author in addition to the parenthetical note. Attributive tags are very useful because they can be positive or negative. They can help strengthen a claim or weaken an opposing claim while introducing a quote, and they signal the intent of the quote.

转述动词是一种定语标记。除了这些动词，定语标签还包括引导短语，这些短语向读者表明引用、总结或释义是别人的想法。除了括号注释外，他们还注明了原作者的名字。定语标签非常有用，因为它们可以是肯定的，也可以是否定的。在引入引用时，它们可以帮助加强一种说法或削弱相反的说法，并且它们表明了引用的意图。