Maritime Asia

最新推荐文章于 2025-04-03 17:15:35 发布

EricWang1358

最新推荐文章于 2025-04-03 17:15:35 发布

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幻灯片 1：标题

GEC3109 Global History Since 1500 (2024-2025 Term 2) Lecture 5 Maritime Asia

这张幻灯片展示了全球历史课程的标题和本讲座的主题。具体来说，这一讲座讨论了自1500年以来全球历史中的一个关键部分——海上亚洲的历史。上面展示的两幅图片分别代表了残酷的历史场景和一些重要的历史人物，这与后面的内容将有深刻的联系。

Slide 1: Title

GEC3109 Global History Since 1500 (2024-2025 Term 2) Lecture 5 Maritime Asia

This slide shows the title of the Global History course and the theme of the lecture. Specifically, this lecture addresses a key part of global history since 1500—Maritime Asia. The images above represent brutal historical scenes and important historical figures, which will be connected to the upcoming content.

幻灯片 2：讲座内容

Part I: Early Maritime Encounters in Asia

这张幻灯片概述了讲座的第一部分，主要讨论了亚洲早期的海上接触。随着大航海时代的到来，欧洲与亚洲的贸易联系开始逐渐加强，这一时期不仅影响了亚洲经济，还影响了全球贸易的格局。

Slide 2: Lecture Content

Part I: Early Maritime Encounters in Asia

This slide outlines the first part of the lecture, which focuses on early maritime encounters in Asia. With the onset of the Age of Exploration, trade links between Europe and Asia began to strengthen, influencing both the Asian economy and the global trade system.

幻灯片 3：葡萄牙的贸易路线

Portuguese trade route in the 16th century

这张幻灯片展示了葡萄牙在16世纪的贸易路线图。葡萄牙在大航海时代扮演了重要角色，其船队不仅开辟了通往非洲和亚洲的新航道，还在全球建立了广泛的贸易网络。葡萄牙的探险家通过这些航线连接了多个大洲，并逐步控制了重要的贸易中心。

Slide 3: Portuguese Trade Route in the 16th Century

This slide presents a map of the Portuguese trade route in the 16th century. Portugal played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration, with its fleets opening new routes to Africa and Asia, and establishing a widespread global trade network. Portuguese explorers connected multiple continents through these routes and gradually took control of key trade centers.

幻灯片 4：葡萄牙的航海动机

The 15th-century Portuguese voyages were mainly driven by:

这张幻灯片列出了15世纪葡萄牙航海的三大主要动机：糖种植园、奴隶贸易和香料的追求。葡萄牙的航海家不仅在寻找新大陆时推动了贸易，还深刻影响了全球经济结构和殖民历史。

Slide 4: The 15th-Century Portuguese Voyages Were Mainly Driven by:

This slide lists the three main motivations for the Portuguese voyages in the 15th century: sugar plantations, the slave trade, and the pursuit of spices. Portuguese navigators not only drove trade during their quest for new lands but also profoundly impacted global economic structures and colonial history.

幻灯片 5：葡萄牙的亚洲到达

Portuguese arrived at the Asia-Pacific region in the 1500s

葡萄牙人于16世纪初成功到达亚洲，具体来说，他们首先到达了中国、澳门和日本、长崎等地。这张幻灯片展示了葡萄牙如何通过与亚洲国家的海上接触，扩展其全球贸易网络，并建立了重要的贸易据点。

Slide 5: Portuguese Arrived at the Asia-Pacific Region in the 1500s

The Portuguese arrived in the Asia-Pacific region in the early 16th century, specifically reaching areas like China (Macau) and Japan (Nagasaki). This slide illustrates how Portugal expanded its global trade network through maritime contact with Asian nations and established crucial trade posts.

Liampo 是指葡萄牙人在16世纪初期在中国的非法贸易港口之一，位于今天中国浙江省的双屿（Shuangyu）港。这个港口的活动大多是非法的，主要因为葡萄牙人通过这一港口进行贸易，但当时中国政府并没有正式允许葡萄牙进行这种商业活动。葡萄牙商人和海盗通常在中国的沿海地区活动，他们通过走私和与当地的非法贸易活动联系，寻找方式进行商品交换。

在李安波（Liampo）港口，葡萄牙的活动主要是为了获取中国的商品，特别是丝绸、瓷器等奢侈品，这些商品成为了欧洲市场非常重要的贸易品。同时，葡萄牙人也在这里建立了早期的海上商贸网络，这些活动为葡萄牙后来的中国澳门贸易站铺平了道路。

专业角度：Liampo在16世纪葡萄牙扩展在亚洲的影响力中具有重要的战略意义。尽管它是一个非法的贸易港口，但它的存在反映了葡萄牙人如何在没有获得正式许可的情况下，通过与中国边缘地区的商人和海盗合作来维持并拓展他们的海上贸易网络。这也体现了当时欧洲列强为控制亚洲市场而进行的激烈竞争。

简化的说法：李安波港是葡萄牙人秘密建立的一个贸易站，虽然当时不被中国政府允许，但它帮助葡萄牙人在中国开展贸易，尤其是丝绸和瓷器贸易，对葡萄牙在中国后来的合法贸易站（如澳门）的建立有着深远的影响。

通俗中文解释：
这张图展示了葡萄牙在16到17世纪的海上贸易路线。葡萄牙的船只从欧洲的里斯本出发，经过多个地点，最终到达日本的长崎。这条路线连接了欧洲、非洲和亚洲，是葡萄牙在全球扩张的主要通道。
专业中文解释：
在16至17世纪，葡萄牙在全球海上贸易中占据主导地位。葡萄牙的贸易航线起点位于欧洲的里斯本，通过非洲、印度洋、东南亚，最终到达日本长崎。通过这条庞大的海上贸易路线，葡萄牙不仅加强了与亚洲、非洲的联系，还促进了跨大西洋的贸易活动，从而使其海上帝国得以扩张，进一步巩固了其在全球贸易中的核心地位。
通俗英文解释：
This map shows the maritime trade routes used by Portugal in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese ships traveled from Lisbon in Europe, passing through several key locations, and ending up in Nagasaki, Japan. This route connected Europe, Africa, and Asia, playing a major role in Portugal's global expansion.
专业英文解释：
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Portugal dominated global maritime trade. The Portuguese maritime route began in Lisbon, Europe, traversed Africa and the Indian Ocean, and reached Southeast Asia, ultimately ending in Nagasaki, Japan. This vast maritime network allowed Portugal to enhance connections with Asia and Africa, foster transatlantic trade, and solidify its central role in global commerce, establishing it as a dominant maritime empire.

通俗中文解释：
明朝的海禁政策由太祖皇帝制定，目的是为了让中国保持自给自足的农业社会，并限制民间的对外贸易。这项政策一直持续到1405年。尽管如此，郑和的七次下西洋活动仍然是明朝外交和海上力量的一部分，展现了中国的强大。
专业中文解释：
明朝的海禁政策是由太祖皇帝实施的，旨在确保国家的农业经济保持自给自足，防止外部贸易和海上势力的干扰。尽管海禁政策限制了民间的国际贸易，但在永乐皇帝的支持下，郑和于1405至1433年间进行的七次外交航海活动，既是外交的一部分，也是为了显示中国的海上力量，并扩展其朝贡体系。
通俗英文解释：
The sea ban policy, implemented by Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, was intended to create a self-sufficient agricultural society and limit private maritime trade. This policy lasted until 1405. Despite this, Zheng He's seven maritime expeditions, launched by Emperor Yongle, were part of China’s diplomatic efforts to display power and extend its tribute system.
专业英文解释：
The sea ban policy imposed by Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty aimed at establishing a stable, self-sufficient agrarian society by restricting private maritime trade and coastal settlement. The policy lasted until 1405, but during Emperor Yongle’s reign, Zheng He conducted seven maritime expeditions (1405-1433) to bolster China’s legitimacy, display its maritime prowess, and extend the tributary system as part of its diplomatic outreach.

通俗中文解释：
郑和的航行结束后，中国的贸易和外交活动受到了朝贡体系的限制。只有携带朝贡物的船只才能进入中国。16世纪，海盗和走私活动猖獗，明朝政府加强了海禁政策。然而，这些限制在1567年被解除。
专业中文解释：
郑和的七下西洋航行后，贸易和外交活动被严格控制在朝贡体系内，只有符合条件的外国使团才能进入中国。16世纪，随着海上走私和海盗活动的增加，明朝进一步加强了海禁政策。直到1567年，政府才决定解除这一限制，并恢复了对外的海上贸易。
通俗英文解释：
After Zheng He’s voyages, China’s trade and diplomatic activities were restricted to the tribute system. Only ships on "tribute-bearing missions" were allowed to trade with China. In the 16th century, piracy and smuggling became widespread, and the sea ban was further tightened. However, in 1567, these maritime trade restrictions were eventually lifted.
专业英文解释：
Following the voyages of Zheng He, China's foreign trade and diplomatic activities were limited to the tribute system, where only "tribute-bearing missions" were permitted to trade with China. By the 16th century, piracy and smuggling were widespread, prompting the government to tighten the sea ban policy. Eventually, in 1567, the maritime trade restrictions were lifted, leading to a resurgence in maritime trade.

通俗中文解释：
在16世纪，明朝社会逐渐变得更加商业化，人们的生活逐渐与经济活动紧密相连，尤其是在江南和珠江三角洲地区。随着经济的商业化，地方政府的控制逐渐减弱，社会变得更加多元化。
专业中文解释：
16世纪的明朝社会见证了经济日益商业化的进程，特别是在江南和珠江三角洲等经济发达地区。随着商业机会的增加和人们财富的积累，地方政府的控制逐渐减弱，社会也因此变得更加多元化。这一时期，通信和商业的进步对明朝的文化和社会结构产生了深远的影响。
通俗英文解释：
In the 16th century, Ming China became more commercialized, especially in regions like Jiangnan and the Pearl River Delta. People were driven by new profitable opportunities in commerce. As economic activities grew, local administration weakened, and society became more diverse.
专业英文解释：
During the 16th century, Ming China witnessed a significant increase in commercial activities, particularly in the highly capitalist, commercial, and industrial regions of Jiangnan and the Pearl River Delta. The rise of new economic opportunities led to the weakening of local administrative control, fostering a more economically and geographically diverse society. Advances in communications and commerce played a key role in shaping Ming culture and society.

原句： Part II Jesuit mission in China and Matteo Ricci

Chinese Explanation (Simple): 这一部分讲述了耶稣会在中国的传教活动，重点是马泰奥·利奇的贡献。耶稣会士通过适应中国文化，成功地在中国开展了基督教传教工作。

Chinese Explanation (Professional): 在16世纪，耶稣会士通过马泰奥·利奇等人的努力进入中国。利奇采取了文化适应策略，学习中文并深入研究儒家思想，借此与中国的士大夫阶层建立联系。通过文化交流，耶稣会士在中国建立了基督教的影响力。

English Explanation (Simple): This section focuses on the Jesuit mission in China, highlighting the contributions of Matteo Ricci. The Jesuits successfully spread Christianity in China by adapting to Chinese culture.

English Explanation (Professional): In the 16th century, Jesuit missionaries, particularly Matteo Ricci, entered China. Ricci adopted a strategy of cultural accommodation, learning Chinese and studying Confucian philosophy to connect with the Chinese elite. Through this cultural exchange, Jesuits established a long-lasting influence in China.

原句： The Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther of Wittenberg (1483–1546)
Against the abuses in the Church (lavish lifestyle, increased fees for religious services, the sale of indulgences....)
The Ninety-five Theses, 1517
Luther’s Theses were printed and distributed across Europe, where they stirred up debate.
In 1521, the Pope excommunicated Luther.
Widespread support of Luther’s teachings.

Chinese Explanation (Simple): 这部分讲到16世纪的宗教改革，特别是马丁·路德的贡献。路德反对教会的腐败和奢侈生活，他在1517年发布的《九十五条论纲》引发了广泛的讨论，最终导致新教的出现。

Chinese Explanation (Professional): 马丁·路德是新教改革的先锋，他通过《九十五条论纲》批评了天主教会的腐败，尤其是对赎罪券和教会奢华生活的指责。路德的论纲引起了欧洲各地的广泛辩论，并最终导致了新教的出现，深刻影响了欧洲的宗教与政治结构。

English Explanation (Simple): This section talks about the Protestant Reformation, especially the role of Martin Luther. Luther opposed the Church’s corruption and lavish lifestyle. His "Ninety-five Theses" in 1517 sparked widespread debate, leading to the rise of Protestantism.

English Explanation (Professional): Martin Luther was the leader of the Protestant Reformation, criticizing the Catholic Church’s corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences and its lavish lifestyle through his "Ninety-five Theses" in 1517. Luther’s theses were widely distributed across Europe, stirring debates that led to the rise of Protestantism, significantly influencing Europe’s religious and political landscape.

原句： The Counter Reformation

Catholic authorities, led by Pope Paul III, undertook a wide-ranging reform effort:
- the Council of Trent (1545 -1563) reaffirmed traditional Catholic views.
- the Society of Jesus, established in 1534 by Spanish nobleman, Ignacio de Loyola (1491–1556)
- played a leading role in the Counter Reformation.
- Education and scholarship became the society’s principal work.
- Jesuits made Christianity a global religion.
- Francis de Xavier (1506–52)

Chinese Explanation (Simple): 这一部分讲述了天主教反宗教改革的过程，特别是由天主教会领导人教皇保罗三世主导的改革。通过特伦特会议，天主教会重申了传统教义。耶稣会士也在这一过程中发挥了重要作用，他们不仅传播基督教，还推动了教育和学术的发展。

Chinese Explanation (Professional): 反宗教改革是天主教会为应对新教改革而展开的一个广泛的改革运动，天主教会通过特伦特会议重新确认了其传统教义。同时，耶稣会在反宗教改革中扮演了重要角色，通过广泛的教育和学术活动，耶稣会士不仅传播了基督教，还为全球的基督教化进程做出了贡献。

English Explanation (Simple): This part talks about the Catholic Counter-Reformation, led by Pope Paul III. Through the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrines. The Jesuits also played a key role, spreading Christianity and focusing on education.

English Explanation (Professional): The Counter-Reformation was a broad movement initiated by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation. Led by Pope Paul III, the Church reaffirmed its traditional doctrines at the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The Society of Jesus, established by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, played a leading role in this movement, focusing on education and scholarship while spreading Christianity globally.

原句： The Counter Reformation

Catholic authorities, led by Pope Paul III, undertook a wide-ranging reform effort:
- the Council of Trent (1545 -1563) reaffirmed traditional Catholic views.
- the Society of Jesus, established in 1534 by Spanish nobleman, Ignacio de Loyola (1491–1556)
- played a leading role in the Counter Reformation.
- Education and scholarship became the society’s principal work.
- Jesuits made Christianity a global religion.
- Francis de Xavier (1506–52)

原句： The Portuguese enclave of Macau

the first official Portuguese settlement in 1557
Establishing the Jesuit community at Macau
- Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci, and Francesco Pasio
Landing on Ming China: Zhaoqing (1582)
- Early missionary strategy: cultural accommodation
- Adopting the persona of a Buddhist monk.

Chinese Explanation (Simple): 澳门是葡萄牙在中国的第一个正式定居点，耶稣会士在这里建立了他们的社区。马泰奥·利奇和其他传教士采取了文化适应的策略，模仿佛教僧侣的形象来接触中国社会。

Chinese Explanation (Professional): 葡萄牙于1557年在澳门建立了第一个正式的定居点。耶稣会士在澳门建立了传教社区，其中包括马泰奥·利奇和米凯莱·鲁吉耶里等人。利奇于1582年到达中国，采用了文化适应策略，通过模仿佛教僧侣的形象来接触中国社会，这为基督教的传播铺平了道路。

English Explanation (Simple): Macau was the first official Portuguese settlement in China, and Jesuit missionaries established their community there. Matteo Ricci and others used cultural accommodation, adopting the persona of a Buddhist monk to connect with Chinese society.

English Explanation (Professional): In 1557, Portugal established its first official settlement in China in Macau, where Jesuit missionaries, including Matteo Ricci and Michele Ruggieri, built a mission community. Ricci landed in China in 1582 and adopted a strategy of cultural accommodation, even adopting the persona of a Buddhist monk to better engage with Chinese society, which helped facilitate the spread of Christianity.

The Society of Jesus

(often referred to as the Jesuits) is a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534. It played a central role in the Counter-Reformation, which was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, and its members are known for their educational, missionary, and charitable work.

通俗中文:

耶稣会（The Society of Jesus）是由西班牙的圣伊格纳修·罗耀拉（Ignatius of Loyola）在1534年创立的一个天主教修道会。它在反宗教改革中起到了非常重要的作用。耶稣会成员以教育、传教和慈善工作著称，尤其在全球范围内的传教活动中扮演着重要角色。

专业中文:

耶稣会（The Society of Jesus）成立于1534年，由圣伊格纳修·罗耀拉创办，目的是通过宗教教育、宣教活动和社会服务推动天主教信仰的发展。在反宗教改革期间，耶稣会通过在学术和教育领域的卓越表现，以及对传教士的培养和派遣，帮助维护和扩展了天主教会的影响力。耶稣会成员在全球多个地区设立了学校和学院，并进行跨文化的传教活动，其中包括在亚洲特别是中国的传教工作。

Simple English Explanation:

The Society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuits, is a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534. The Jesuits played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation and are known for their work in education, missions, and charitable activities. They spread Catholicism worldwide and established many schools and colleges, becoming an important part of global Catholicism.

Professional English Explanation:

The Society of Jesus was established in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola, with a mission to spread Catholicism through education, missionary work, and social services. During the Counter-Reformation, the Jesuits were instrumental in defending and promoting Catholic doctrine, establishing schools, colleges, and missions worldwide. They played a particularly significant role in Asia, including China, where they adopted a strategy of cultural accommodation to engage with Chinese society and spread Christianity.

反新教（Counter-Reformation）是指天主教会对新教改革（Protestant Reformation）的回应与反击。新教改革始于16世纪初，由马丁·路德等人推动，主张教会改革，反对教会的腐败现象，如赎罪券的销售和教士的奢侈生活。反新教则是天主教会为抵制新教的影响和重新确立天主教的教义权威所采取的一系列宗教、政治和社会措施。

通俗中文：

耶稣会和反新教的关系在于，耶稣会是天主教会在反新教运动中的重要组成部分之一。在16世纪时，新教的兴起挑战了天主教的权威，特别是在马丁·路德提出95条论纲后，引发了广泛的宗教改革。而反新教的运动就是天主教对这种挑战的回应。为了捍卫教会的权威，天主教会加强了信仰教育、加强对新教的反击，并通过传教士（如耶稣会成员）来扩展天主教的影响，特别是在那些被新教思想影响较深的地区。

专业中文：

反新教（Counter-Reformation）是天主教教会在16世纪对新教改革所采取的一系列措施和策略。新教改革起始于马丁·路德于1517年发布的**《九十五条论纲》，其核心观点包括对教会腐败的批评，特别是对赎罪券等不当行为的强烈反对。反新教运动通过宗教改革和加强天主教的教义系统来应对这一挑战。耶稣会（The Society of Jesus）在这一过程中发挥了关键作用，尤其是通过教育体系和传教活动在全球范围内促进了天主教信仰的传播，并且帮助天主教**恢复了在许多地区的宗教影响力。此举不仅仅是对新教的宗教反击，还是一场思想、文化与社会秩序的全面对抗。

Francis de Xavier（圣方济各·沙勿略）‘

是耶稣会的创始成员之一，也是天主教会历史上最著名的传教士之一。他在16世纪初的反新教运动中发挥了关键作用，并为天主教信仰的全球传播做出了巨大贡献。

通俗中文：

圣方济各·沙勿略是天主教的一位伟大人物，他是耶稣会的创始成员之一。他一生致力于将天主教传教到世界各地，尤其是在亚洲。他不仅仅是一个传教士，还是耶稣会的开创者之一。沙勿略为天主教的全球扩展做出了极大贡献，尤其是在印度、日本和中国等地。他的传教活动不仅仅是传播宗教，更是促进文化交流和教育的开创性工作。

专业中文：

圣方济各·沙勿略（Francisco de Xavier，1506-1552），是西班牙贵族出身，成为耶稣会的创始成员之一。沙勿略在16世纪的天主教扩展运动中，尤其是在亚洲的传教活动中，扮演了至关重要的角色。他不仅在印度、日本和中国等地进行传教工作，还促进了当地的文化交流。沙勿略的传教策略主要是通过教育、语言适应以及文化接纳的方式来建立信任并传播天主教信仰。他在日本的工作尤为显著，为之后天主教在日本的传播打下了基础。

Simple English Explanation:

Francis de Xavier was one of the founders of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and one of the most prominent Catholic missionaries in history. Born in 1506, he dedicated much of his life to spreading Catholicism in Asia. He traveled to places like India, Japan, and China, where he not only preached Christianity but also fostered cultural exchanges and established educational institutions. His missionary work was central to the global expansion of Catholicism, especially in regions that had been impacted by Protestantism.

Professional English Explanation:

Francis de Xavier (1506-1552) was a Spanish nobleman and one of the founding members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). He played a pivotal role in the Catholic Church's global expansion, particularly in Asia during the 16th century. His missionary efforts focused on India, Japan, and China, where he promoted Catholic teachings, emphasized cultural accommodation, and initiated educational and cultural exchanges. His work in Japan was particularly influential in laying the groundwork for the future spread of Catholicism in the region. Francis de Xavier’s approach combined missionary zeal with cultural sensitivity, making him a key figure in the Counter-Reformation’s efforts to spread Catholicism across the world.

关于圣方济各·沙勿略（Francis de Xavier）的以下说法中，正确的是哪一项？

A. 圣方济各·沙勿略是耶稣会的创始成员之一，并且他的传教活动主要集中在欧洲。

B. 他一生的传教活动主要在亚洲进行，尤其是在印度、日本和中国等地。

C. 他主张通过暴力强迫异教徒接受天主教信仰。

D. 沙勿略的传教活动成功地将天主教信仰从中国传播到南美洲。

答案： B

解析： 圣方济各·沙勿略（Francis de Xavier）是耶稣会的创始成员之一，他的传教活动主要集中在亚洲，特别是在印度、日本和中国等地。他的工作不仅仅是传播宗教，还包括促进文化交流和教育的传播。他的传教方法注重文化适应，而非暴力或强迫。

文化适应（cultural adaptation）是指个体或群体在接触并进入不同文化背景时，调整其行为、价值观和信仰的过程，以便在该文化环境中有效互动和生存。这种过程通常包括语言学习、社会交往方式的改变、价值观的调整以及对文化差异的理解和尊重。在传教活动中，文化适应指的是传教士根据目标地区的文化特征，采取灵活的传播方式，使得传教内容能被当地人更好地理解和接受，而不是强行推行外来文化或宗教形式。

第15页

图片描述：

"images of Virgin Mary were accommodated to Chinese style, Such as Bodhisattva"

通俗中文：

图中所示的是一种文化适应的例子，指的是将西方的圣母玛利亚的形象转变为符合中国风格的方式，像是菩萨形象。这是为了让中国人更容易接受和理解基督教的教义。

专业中文：

这种文化适应（Cultural Accommodation）反映了天主教传教士在中国传播宗教过程中采取的策略，即通过将宗教符号和形象本地化，以促进文化交流和宗教的接受。例如，圣母玛利亚的形象与中国传统文化中的菩萨形象相似，便于中国民众的认同和理解。

通俗英文：

The image shows an example of cultural accommodation, where the image of the Virgin Mary was adapted to fit the Chinese style, resembling a Bodhisattva. This was done to make it easier for the Chinese people to accept and understand Christianity.

专业英文：

This cultural accommodation is a strategy adopted by Catholic missionaries in China, which involves localizing religious symbols and images to facilitate cultural exchange and religious acceptance. For example, the image of the Virgin Mary was adapted to resemble the Bodhisattva, making it more relatable for the Chinese audience.

"1602 World Map of Matteo Ricci"

通俗中文：

这是1602年由意大利传教士和学者利玛窦绘制的世界地图，展示了他对世界地理的理解。此地图向中国和其他地区的学者展示了欧洲的世界观。

专业中文：

利玛窦的这幅世界地图《万国全图》标志着他在西方科学与中国文化交流方面的重要贡献。地图不仅为中国学者提供了关于世界其他部分的知识，也展示了西方地理知识如何与中国的地理观念进行融合。

通俗英文：

This is the 1602 world map drawn by Matteo Ricci, an Italian missionary and scholar, showing his understanding of the world’s geography. The map presented the European worldview to scholars in China and other regions.

专业英文：

Matteo Ricci's 1602 world map, "Complete Geographical Map of Ten Thousand Countries," represents a significant contribution to the exchange of Western scientific knowledge with Chinese culture. It provided Chinese scholars with knowledge of other parts of the world and demonstrated how Western geographical knowledge could be integrated with Chinese geographical concepts.

图片描述：

"Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi"

通俗中文：

这是利玛窦与中国学者徐光启的合照。两人合作翻译了许多西方的科学著作，帮助中国学者更好地理解西方的数学和科学知识。

专业中文：

利玛窦与徐光启的合作是中西文化交流的典范之一。两人不仅在基督教传播方面有所合作，还在科学、尤其是数学领域开展了深入的学术交流，共同翻译了包括《几何原本》在内的重要西方科学著作，极大地促进了中国科学思想的更新与发展。

通俗英文：

This is a photo of Matteo Ricci and the Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. They collaborated to translate many Western scientific works, helping Chinese scholars better understand Western mathematics and science.

专业英文：

The collaboration between Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi is a model of Sino-Western cultural exchange. Their work together went beyond the spread of Christianity and included extensive scholarly exchanges in science, particularly in mathematics. They co-translated important Western scientific texts, such as "Euclid’s Elements," greatly promoting the modernization of Chinese scientific thought.

图片描述：

"Selected readings from Ronnie Hsia, Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China, 1583–1610"

通俗中文：

这是从Ronnie Hsia的书《利玛窦与中国的天主教使命》中选出的内容，里面提出了关于利玛窦与澳门当地官员之间的互动问题。主要讨论了当地官员对外国人和中国人在澳门的看法。

专业中文：

此部分选读反映了利玛窦在澳门的传教活动与当地官员的互动，特别是澳门的地方官员如何看待外国传教士以及他们对中国商人的控制要求。此类问题的解决显示了利玛窦如何巧妙地应对中国官员的疑虑，并促进了宗教与文化的交流。

通俗英文：

This is a selection from Ronnie Hsia’s book "Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China," focusing on the interactions between Matteo Ricci and local officials in Macau. It addresses concerns about foreigners and Chinese people in Macau.

专业英文：

This section of the reading highlights the interactions between Matteo Ricci and local officials in Macau, specifically how the local authorities viewed foreign missionaries and their attempts to regulate Chinese merchants. The way these issues were handled reflects how Ricci cleverly navigated the concerns of Chinese officials, facilitating cultural and religious exchange.

图片描述：

"Matteo Ricci learned mathematics from Christopher Clavius"

通俗中文：

利玛窦在学习西方数学方面得到了克里斯托弗·克拉维乌斯的帮助。通过与徐光启的合作，他们将西方的数学知识带入了中国，极大地影响了中国的科学发展。

专业中文：

利玛窦从意大利数学家克里斯托弗·克拉维乌斯学习了数学，克拉维乌斯是耶稣会的成员之一，他在数学和天文学方面的贡献被广泛认可。利玛窦通过与中国学者徐光启的合作，将这些西方的数学理论带入中国，并通过翻译和教学，促进了中国科学技术的发展。

通俗英文：

Matteo Ricci learned mathematics from Christopher Clavius, and through collaboration with Xu Guangqi, they introduced Western mathematical knowledge to China, greatly influencing the development of Chinese science.

专业英文：

Matteo Ricci learned mathematics from Christopher Clavius, an influential Italian mathematician and Jesuit, whose contributions to mathematics and astronomy were highly regarded. Through his collaboration with Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi, Ricci brought these Western mathematical theories to China, and through translation and teaching, contributed to the advancement of Chinese science and technology.

Slide 20: "Part III Japanese encounter with Christianity"

通俗中文: 这一部分讲的是日本与基督教的接触，描述了日本是如何与基督教文化发生联系的。
专业中文: 本部分深入探讨了16世纪初期，基督教传教士如何与日本的政治、社会和宗教结构互动，及其对日本历史发展的影响。
Plain English: This section talks about Japan's interaction with Christianity, describing how Christianity began to be introduced and how it influenced Japan.
Professional English: This part delves into the introduction and spread of Christianity in Japan, analyzing the cultural, social, and political impacts, as well as the role of missionaries during the early encounters with Japan.

Slide 21: "The Unification of Japan, early 17th century"

通俗中文: 这里介绍了日本在17世纪初的统一过程，特别是德川家康如何通过建立幕府，统一了日本，并结束了战国时代的混乱。
专业中文: 该部分讲解了日本从12世纪到16世纪的封建分裂状态，及德川幕府的建立对政治结构和社会秩序恢复的意义，确保了日本的稳定与发展。
Plain English: This slide explains how Japan was unified in the early 17th century, focusing on how Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa Shogunate, which brought an end to the Sengoku period.
Professional English: The presentation covers the political landscape of Japan during the feudal era, detailing the centralization of power by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate, which played a crucial role in stabilizing Japan after the Sengoku civil wars.

Slide 22: "Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1867"

通俗中文: 这张地图展示了德川幕府时代的日本及其周边地区，重点标出长崎作为外贸和外来文化的接触点。
专业中文: 本图描绘了德川时代的日本以及该时期日本与外部世界的联系，特别是长崎港的开放对外来文化的影响。
Plain English: This map shows Japan during the Tokugawa period and highlights Nagasaki as a key point for trade and foreign interactions.
Professional English: The map illustrates the geographical context of Tokugawa Japan, emphasizing its strategic position relative to neighboring regions, and the significance of Nagasaki as a vital port for international trade and foreign influence during Japan's isolationist period.

Slide 23: "Control of the Daimyo"

通俗中文: 这部分讲的是德川幕府如何控制大名，即日本的地方领主。为了防止内战，大名们必须遵守“轮番出席”政策，不能互相访问。
专业中文: 该部分分析了德川幕府通过对大名实行“交替出席制”来巩固中央集权，避免了地方势力的过度膨胀，并且进一步控制了各地的经济和政治活动。
Plain English: This slide discusses how the Tokugawa Shogunate controlled the powerful lords, known as the daimyo, through policies like "alternate attendance," which limited their movements and power.
Professional English: The slide explores the Tokugawa Shogunate's strategic use of the "alternate attendance" system to manage the daimyo, ensuring their loyalty and preventing them from challenging central authority by maintaining political stability through tight control of the local feudal lords.

Slide 24: "Control of Foreign Relations"

通俗中文: 这张幻灯片讲解了德川幕府如何通过限制外贸来控制与外部世界的关系。1630年代，日本禁止了与外国的贸易，并且限制了欧洲人进入日本。
专业中文: 本部分探讨了德川幕府在17世纪30年代采取的外贸限制政策，以及通过对长崎港的严格管理来控制外部交流和西方影响力。
Plain English: This slide explains how the Tokugawa Shogunate controlled foreign relations by imposing strict edicts in the 1630s, including banning Japanese travel abroad and limiting foreign trade to Nagasaki.
Professional English: The slide outlines the Tokugawa Shogunate’s foreign policy measures in the 1630s, particularly the enactment of isolationist edicts that banned overseas travel, expelled most Europeans, and tightly regulated the limited trade conducted with Chinese and Dutch merchants at Nagasaki, aiming to limit foreign influence.

Page 25:

通俗解释 (Plain Explanation): This slide talks about the Jesuit missionary, Francisco de Xavier, who came to Japan in 1549. He stayed in Kagoshima and spread Christianity to poor peasants and fishermen.
专业解释 (Professional Explanation): Francisco de Xavier, a prominent Jesuit missionary, arrived in Japan during the Sengoku period and began his missionary work. In his two-year stay, approximately 700 people were converted, mainly from the lower social classes. His mission was closely tied to the trade between the Portuguese and Japanese, influencing both culture and religious spread.

Page 25:

通俗解释 (Plain Explanation): This slide talks about the Jesuit missionary, Francisco de Xavier, who came to Japan in 1549. He stayed in Kagoshima and spread Christianity to poor peasants and fishermen.
专业解释 (Professional Explanation): Francisco de Xavier, a prominent Jesuit missionary, arrived in Japan during the Sengoku period and began his missionary work. In his two-year stay, approximately 700 people were converted, mainly from the lower social classes. His mission was closely tied to the trade between the Portuguese and Japanese, influencing both culture and religious spread.

通俗解释 (Plain Explanation): 这一页讲的是耶稣会传教士圣方济·沙勿略，他于1549年抵达日本。在鹿儿岛停留，开始向贫苦的农民和渔民传播基督教。
专业解释 (Professional Explanation): 圣方济·沙勿略，作为耶稣会的杰出传教士，在战国时期的日本开始了传教工作。沙勿略在日本的两年时间里，共有约700人皈依基督教，大多数信徒来自社会下层。他的传教工作与葡萄牙和日本之间的贸易关系密切相关，影响了当地的文化和宗教传播。

通俗解释 (Plain Explanation): 这幅画展示了葡萄牙船只到达日本，显示了葡萄牙与日本之间的贸易在当时日本文化中的影响。
专业解释 (Professional Explanation): 这幅画表现了葡萄牙船只抵达日本的情景，体现了基督教与商品、服务及思想一同在这一时期传播。1549年到1639年间，通常被称为日本的“基督教世纪”，是葡萄牙与日本之间贸易繁荣的关键时期。

通俗解释 (Plain Explanation): 沙勿略离开后，科斯莫·德·托雷斯继续了他的传教工作，并调整了传教方法，以适应日本的文化。这一时期（1549-1639）被称为日本的“基督教世纪”。
专业解释 (Professional Explanation): 沙勿略离开后，科斯莫·德·托雷斯及其他耶稣会成员继续传教工作，他们调整了自己的方法以适应日本的文化习惯。1549年到1639年间被称为日本的“基督教世纪”，在这一时期，基督教皈依者，即“吉利支丹”，在1603年时达到约350,000人。然而，1639年日本政府实施了全面禁止基督教的法令。

Simple Explanation:

Oda Nobunaga, the first leader to unify Japan during the civil wars, supported the Christian faith (Kirishitan).
Jesuits had different views about the local religious environment. One Jesuit, Alexander Valignano, wanted to recruit local Japanese as priests, while Francisco Cabral opposed this idea.

专业解释：

在日本战国时期（1534-1582），织田信长是日本的首位统一者，他支持基督教（Kirishitan）。
耶稣会士对佛教和当地基督徒的看法有所不同。耶稣会士亚历山大·瓦利尼亚诺（1539-1606）强烈提倡招募本地神职人员，而弗朗西斯科·卡布拉尔（1528-1609）反对将日本人视为与欧洲人平等并授予他们神父职务。

Simple Explanation:

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was initially tolerant of Christianity but later became opposed to it.
In 1587, he issued the Bateren Edict, expelling all Christian missionaries from Japan.

专业解释：

丰臣秀吉（1536-1598）最初继续支持信长的宽容政策，但逐渐对基督教产生敌意。
《伴天连诏令》，1587年：其中“伴天连”指的是神父。丰臣秀吉发布了命令，要求在二十天内驱逐所有传教士。

Simple Explanation:

Hideyoshi's change of heart was due to his fear of foreign influence, especially Spanish colonization, as well as concerns about political control and the influence of European merchants.

专业解释：

秀吉改变政策的原因：
- 外国影响的恐惧
  - 西班牙殖民威胁。
- 政治统一与控制
  - 基督教大名成为挑战中央权威的力量。
- 经济和社会关切
  - 更大程度地控制对外贸易，限制欧洲商人的影响力。

Simple Explanation:

There were rivalries between the Portuguese Jesuits and the Spanish Franciscans over their different methods of conversion.
Hideyoshi saw Christianity as a threat, and the shipwreck of the Spanish ship San Felipe in 1596 led to the execution of 26 Christians.

专业解释：

欧洲之间的派系竞争：
- 葡萄牙的耶稣会士与西班牙的方济各会士之间存在竞争（他们的传教策略不同）。
秀吉将基督教视为一种不稳定的力量。
1596年10月19日，西班牙的圣菲利佩号船只在日本四国岛搁浅。
该事件导致了二十六位基督徒的殉道。

Slide 33: Tokugawa Bakufu and Kirishitans

Simple Explanation (Chinese): 在1598年，德川家康建立了德川幕府，开始统一日本。对于基督教的态度逐渐从宽容转向迫害。他们担心基督教徒可能与反对幕府的武士阶层结盟。
Professional Explanation (English): In 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu completed the unification of Japan and established the Tokugawa Shogunate. His attitude toward Christianity shifted from tolerance to persecution, due to the appearance of rivals reducing the importance of trade with the Portuguese, the Jesuits losing their monopoly as translators, and the possibility of Christians allying with the anti-Shogunate warrior class.

Slide 34: Anti-Kirishitan policy and Shimabara Rebellion

Simple Explanation (Chinese): 1614年，德川家康发布命令，驱逐天主教传教士。日本基督徒被迫隐匿成为隐藏的基督徒。为了识别基督徒，政府要求他们践踏神像。
Professional Explanation (English): In 1614, Tokugawa Ieyasu issued an edict expelling Catholic missionaries. Japanese Christians were forced underground, becoming "Hidden Christians" (kakure kirishitan). The fumi-e, a sacred image to be trampled on, was used to identify Christians who were supposed to refuse to blaspheme.

Slide 35: Anti-Kirishitan policy and Shimabara Rebellion

Simple Explanation (Chinese): 島原之乱（1637-38）发生在基督教迫害的背景下，导致基督教运动在17世纪日本的终结。
Professional Explanation (English): The Shimabara Rebellion (1637–38) was significantly influenced by Christian persecution. The failure of the rebellion led to the end of the Christian movement in 17th-century Japan.

Slide 36: End of the Jesuit Mission in Japan and China

Simple Explanation (Chinese): 17至18世纪的中国仪式争议与不同天主教派的分歧有关。1721年，康熙帝禁止了在中国的所有基督教传教活动。日本的基督教也由于禁令而只能秘密存在。
Professional Explanation (English): The Chinese Rites controversy (17th-18th centuries) revolved around the dispute between different Catholic orders over whether Chinese converts could continue traditional rites. The Kangxi Emperor of China banned all Christian preaching in 1721. Between 1587 and 1639, the Japanese shoguns issued decrees halting Christian missions, and Christianity survived only as a secret, underground religion.

Slide 37: Fabian Fucan and Deus Destroyed

Simple Explanation (Chinese): 法比安·富干（1565-1621）原为禅宗僧侣，后皈依基督教，但在17世纪初，他改信政府，支持压制基督教的政策。
Professional Explanation (English): Fabian Fucan (1565–1621), a former Zen Buddhist monk, converted to Christianity but later supported the government’s suppression of Christianity. His work Deus Destroyed (1620) refuted Christianity with solid knowledge of the faith, presenting arguments against its doctrines.

The policy of sea ban (Ming dynasty)

The sea ban policy (海禁政策) refers to the policy enacted by the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) that restricted maritime trade and interaction with foreign countries, especially with countries like Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, and European powers. This policy was established in the early 15th century and lasted for much of the Ming period, although there were exceptions and periods of relaxation.

Simple Explanation (Chinese):

海禁政策是明朝（1368–1644）实行的一项限制对外海上贸易和交往的政策。这项政策始于15世纪初，目的是防止海盗和外国势力的干涉。海禁禁止了与外界的贸易，尤其是与日本、韩国、东南亚和欧洲的交往。

Professional Explanation (English):

The sea ban policy (also known as the haijin policy) was initiated by the Ming Dynasty in the early 15th century, primarily under the rule of Emperor Zhu Di (Yongle Emperor). Its main objective was to curb piracy along the coast and to prevent foreign influence, particularly from the Portuguese and Spanish, as well as to limit the activities of Chinese merchants and traders. The policy prohibited private maritime trade and imposed strict controls over trade, often only permitting trade in select, regulated ports.

The sea ban was implemented to strengthen internal control and maintain the empire's territorial integrity, but it also contributed to the decline of China’s maritime influence during the Ming period. Despite the policy, illegal trade and smuggling activities continued, and the coastal regions of China still maintained some level of interaction with the outside world.

专业解释（中文）：

朝贡体系旨在巩固中国在东亚的中心地位，并强调其作为区域主导力量的角色。在这一体系下，邻近的国家，如朝鲜、越南、日本以及东南亚的多个王国，需要通过象征性的贡品和服从仪式，向中国皇帝表示对其至高无上的承认。作为回报，这些国家获得了其统治合法性的承认、贸易的机会以及军事保护。

尽管朝贡体系主要基于贸易，但它也反映了中国儒家理想中的等级化世界秩序，在这一秩序中，中国位居中心，周边国家则是从属关系，但仍受到尊重。朝贡体系在这一框架下帮助维持了区域的和平与稳定，且在很长一段时间内发挥了作用。然而，随着西方列强和其他势力挑战中国的区域主导地位，朝贡体系在19世纪逐渐瓦解。

尽管朝贡体系的重要性毋庸置疑，但它并非一成不变或严格固定的体系。它允许灵活的安排，许多国家（如日本和朝鲜）在这一框架下与中国进行交流，并根据各自的需求调整朝贡方式。

Kirishitan (キリシタン)

refers to the Japanese term for Christianity and its followers during the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly when Christianity was introduced by Portuguese missionaries. The term is derived from the Portuguese word "Cristão," which means "Christian." The Kirishitan movement represents the early Christian community in Japan, which was largely influenced by Jesuit missionaries like Francisco Xavier and others.

Overview of Kirishitan in Japan:

Introduction of Christianity: Christianity was introduced to Japan in 1549, largely through the efforts of Jesuit missionaries, especially Francisco Xavier, who arrived in the region with Portuguese traders. They made significant inroads, converting a number of Japanese citizens, including feudal lords (Daimyos), and establishing churches and missions in various parts of Japan.
The Kirishitan Population: By the early 17th century, it is estimated that the number of Japanese Christians reached approximately 300,000, a significant number given the size of the population at the time. The conversions were mostly in areas where Portuguese influence was strong, such as the Kyushu region.
The Decline of Kirishitan: The success of the Kirishitan community was not without opposition. The growing number of converts was seen as a threat by certain Japanese rulers, particularly under Toyotomi Hideyoshi and later Tokugawa Ieyasu. The missionary activities and the potential political influence of Christianity were seen as destabilizing, leading to the gradual persecution of Christians. In 1614, Tokugawa Ieyasu issued a decree expelling Catholic missionaries and forbidding the practice of Christianity. Many Christians were persecuted and forced to go underground, becoming what is known as "Hidden Christians" (kakure Kirishitan).
Kirishitan Practices: During this period of persecution, Christianity was practiced in secret. Many Kirishitan followers used symbols and rituals to maintain their faith while avoiding detection, such as stepping on sacred images (fumi-e) to prove they were not Christian. Those who refused to do so were often executed.
Kirishitan Legacy: Despite the harsh measures against them, the Kirishitan community managed to survive in hidden form for centuries. Many of their traditions and practices were preserved in isolation, and the community was rediscovered in the 19th century when Japan reopened to the outside world.

The Kirishitan history in Japan is an important part of the broader story of Christianity's encounter with Japanese society, highlighting the tension between faith, culture, and political authority during the period of isolation.

Kirishitan（キリシタン）是日本16世纪和17世纪基督教徒及其信仰的称呼，特别是基督教由葡萄牙传教士传入日本时。这一术语源自葡萄牙语单词“Cristão”，意为“基督徒”。Kirishitan运动代表了日本早期的基督教社群，主要受到耶稣会传教士如圣方济各·沙勿略等人的影响。

Kirishitan在日本的概述：

基督教的传入：基督教于1549年由耶稣会传教士引入日本，尤其是圣方济各·沙勿略，他与葡萄牙商人一起抵达日本。耶稣会传教士在日本取得了显著进展，改信了许多日本民众，包括一些大名（封建领主），并在日本各地建立了教堂和传教站。
Kirishitan人口：到了17世纪初，据估计日本的基督徒人数达到了约30万人，这在当时的日本人口中是一个相当可观的数字。大多数改信者集中在葡萄牙影响较大的九州地区。
Kirishitan的衰退：Kirishitan社群的成功并非没有反对。随着信徒人数的增加，某些日本统治者视其为威胁，特别是在丰臣秀吉和德川家康的统治下。基督教的传教活动及其可能带来的政治影响被认为具有不稳定因素，导致基督徒逐渐遭受迫害。1614年，德川家康颁布法令，驱逐天主教传教士，并禁止基督教的传播。许多基督徒被迫转入地下，成为所谓的“隐匿基督徒”（kakure Kirishitan）。
Kirishitan的实践：在这一迫害时期，基督教被秘密地实践。许多Kirishitan信徒使用符号和仪式来维持他们的信仰，同时避免被发现，例如践踏圣像（踏み絵，fumi-e）以证明他们不是基督徒。那些拒绝践踏圣像的人通常会被处决。
Kirishitan的遗产：尽管遭遇严厉的迫害，Kirishitan社群还是在地下形式中存活了几个世纪。他们的许多传统和实践被保留下来，直到19世纪日本重新开放时，才重新被发现。

Kirishitan在日本的历史是基督教与日本社会接触的更广泛故事中的重要组成部分，突显了信仰、文化和政治权威之间在隔离时期的张力。

Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康, 1543–1616)

was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the military government that ruled Japan from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He played a crucial role in ending the Sengoku period (the period of civil war) and unifying Japan under a centralized feudal system. His reign laid the foundation for over two and a half centuries of relative peace and stability in Japan, known as the Edo period (or Tokugawa period). Here's a more in-depth look at Tokugawa Ieyasu's life and contributions:

Early Life and Rise to Power:

Birth and Early Years: Ieyasu was born in 1543 in Okazaki, in present-day Aichi Prefecture. He was originally known as Matsudaira Takechiyo, and he was the son of Matsudaira Hirotada, a minor samurai lord. Ieyasu was taken as a hostage by the powerful Oda clan as a young boy, which greatly shaped his early years. Later, he served under Oda Nobunaga and later Toyotomi Hideyoshi, two of the most powerful warlords of the period.
Strategic Alliances: Through his tactical alliances and careful management of relations, Ieyasu gradually increased his power and influence. His long-term ally, Oda Nobunaga, helped him expand his territory, but after Nobunaga's assassination in 1582, Ieyasu navigated the complex political landscape carefully. He initially supported Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the man who unified Japan under his rule after Nobunaga's death, but Ieyasu always retained his ambitions for greater power.

Battle of Sekigahara (1600):

The Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 was the defining moment in Ieyasu’s rise to power. Following Hideyoshi’s death in 1598, Ieyasu and other powerful daimyo (feudal lords) vied for control over Japan. At Sekigahara, Ieyasu decisively defeated the forces of his rival Ishida Mitsunari, solidifying his control over Japan. This victory enabled him to establish himself as the supreme ruler of the country.

Establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate:

Shogunate Formation: After his victory at Sekigahara, Ieyasu was granted the title of Shogun by the Emperor in 1603. He established the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo (modern-day Tokyo) and began a period of governance that would last for over 250 years.
Centralization of Power: Ieyasu worked to consolidate power by implementing a system that effectively controlled the daimyo. His policies, such as the sankin-kotai system (alternate attendance), forced daimyo to spend every other year in the capital, Edo, leaving their families there as hostages. This reduced the threat of rebellion and ensured loyalty to the shogunate.
Policy toward Christianity: Ieyasu's approach toward Christianity evolved during his reign. Initially, he was somewhat tolerant of Christianity, especially since Jesuit missionaries helped maintain good relations with European traders. However, as the number of Christians grew and Christianity was seen as a possible political threat, he issued an edict in 1614 expelling Catholic missionaries and banning Christianity in Japan. This led to the persecution of Christians, with many being forced to renounce their faith or practice it in secret.

Legacy and Death:

Peace and Stability: Ieyasu's reign established a lasting peace in Japan after decades of civil war. His governance laid the groundwork for the Edo period, during which Japan experienced economic growth, urbanization, and cultural development.
Death and Succession: Tokugawa Ieyasu died in 1616 at the age of 73, but his influence continued through his descendants. His son, Tokugawa Hidetada, succeeded him as shogun, and the Tokugawa family ruled Japan until 1868.

Ieyasu’s legacy is monumental. He was a shrewd strategist, capable of navigating both military and political challenges. His long-lasting shogunate shaped the course of Japanese history for centuries.

德川家康（1543年—1616年）是德川幕府的创始人及首任幕府将军，这一军事政权在1603年至1868年期间统治日本。他在结束战国时期（日本战乱时期）并实现日本统一方面发挥了关键作用。家康的统治奠定了江户时期（或称德川时期）的基础，这一时期日本实现了长达二百多年相对和平与稳定。以下是对德川家康的生平和贡献的更深入分析：

早年生活与崛起：

出生与早期：家康于1543年出生在今天的爱知县冈崎市。他最初名为松平竹千代，是松平广忠的儿子，松平家族是当时一个较为微弱的武士家族。家康年轻时曾被作为人质被迫与织田信长的家族合作，这对他早期的成长有着深远影响。后来，他效忠于信长和丰臣秀吉，这是当时最为强大的两位战国大名。
战略联盟：通过战略联盟和精心处理的关系，家康逐渐增加了自己的权力和影响力。他的长期盟友织田信长帮助他扩展领土，但在信长于1582年被暗杀后，家康小心地应对复杂的政治局势。尽管最初他支持丰臣秀吉，统一了日本，但家康始终保持着对更大权力的野心。

关原之战（1600年）：

关原之战是家康崛起的决定性时刻。秀吉死后，家康与其他强大大名争夺控制权。在关原之战中，家康大获全胜，彻底击败了石田三成的敌军，稳固了对日本的控制。这场胜利使他成为了日本的最高统治者。

建立德川幕府：

幕府的成立：在关原之战获胜后，家康于1603年被天皇任命为征夷大将军，并正式建立了德川幕府，以江户（今东京）为首都，开始了一个新的军事政权时期。
集权化政策：家康通过一系列政策来巩固权力，最著名的如**“大名交替制度”**（参勤交代），要求大名每两年必须到首都江户居住一次，并将家族作为人质留下，这减少了叛乱的威胁，确保了对幕府的忠诚。
对基督教的态度：家康对基督教的态度在其统治期间发生了变化。最初，基督教受到一定的宽容，部分原因是耶稣会传教士在葡萄牙商人维持良好关系方面发挥了作用。然而，随着基督徒人数的增加，并且基督教被视为潜在的政治威胁，他在1614年颁布法令，驱逐了天主教传教士，禁止基督教在日本传播。这导致了基督徒的迫害，许多人被迫隐匿信仰，成为地下基督徒。

遗产与去世：

和平与稳定：家康的统治带来了战后的和平，这为江户时期的经济增长、城市化和文化发展奠定了基础。
去世与继任：德川家康于1616年去世，享年73岁，但他的影响力通过他的子孙得以延续。他的儿子德川秀忠继任为幕府将军，并且德川家族延续统治直到1868年。

家康的遗产是极其重要的。他是一位精明的战略家，能够有效应对军事和政治上的挑战。他的治理模式深远影响了日本历史的进程。

Oda Nobunaga (織田信長, 1534–1582)

was a prominent Japanese warlord during the late Sengoku period (1467–1615), a time of political instability and constant warfare between various feudal lords in Japan. Nobunaga is best known for initiating the process of unification in Japan, which was completed by his successors, especially Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. His ambition, innovative tactics, and boldness transformed Japan’s military and political landscape. Here's a deeper look at Oda Nobunaga's life and contributions:

Early Life and Rise to Power:

Birth and Early Years: Oda Nobunaga was born in 1534 in Owari Province (modern-day Aichi Prefecture). He was the son of Oda Nobuhide, a local warlord. He was an unconventional leader who initially struggled with the loyalty of his family and retainers, but his resolve and strategic brilliance helped him establish his authority.
Initial Steps to Power: Nobunaga inherited the leadership of the Oda clan after his father's death in 1551. His early years were marked by constant conflict with neighboring clans and the struggle for control over his own domain. However, he quickly asserted control over the Owari Province and began expanding his influence.

Key Military Achievements:

Battle of Okehazama (1560): One of Nobunaga’s most famous victories was the Battle of Okehazama in 1560. Nobunaga, with a much smaller force, defeated the larger army of the Imagawa clan. This victory elevated Nobunaga’s status and solidified his reputation as a capable military strategist.
Innovations in Warfare: Nobunaga was known for his use of new military tactics, particularly the effective use of firearms. He was one of the first warlords to recognize the value of firearms in combat, and he effectively deployed them in battles, which played a significant role in his victories.
Unification Efforts: Over the next two decades, Nobunaga continued to expand his territory through strategic alliances, military campaigns, and the defeat of rival warlords. His forces eventually controlled much of central Japan, including Kyoto, the capital, which was significant both politically and culturally.

Key Policies and Cultural Contributions:

Centralization and Reforms: Nobunaga pursued reforms to centralize and strengthen his power. He introduced policies to stabilize the economy, encourage trade, and develop infrastructure. His reforms also included the promotion of merchants and artisans, which were vital to the country's economic growth. He was among the first to actively promote the use of gunpowder weapons and modern military strategies in Japan.
Religious Policy: Nobunaga had a complex relationship with religion. He is known for his opposition to the power of Buddhist monasteries, especially the Ikkō-ikki, a powerful Buddhist sect that had gained political and military strength. He destroyed the Hongan-ji monastery, which was the center of Ikkō-ikki resistance. However, his approach to religion was pragmatic—he allowed Christian missionaries to operate in his territories, believing that their presence would help his own political ambitions by establishing trade with European powers.
Cultural Patronage: Nobunaga also patronized culture, especially the arts. He supported tea ceremonies, and his influence was felt in architecture and theater. Nobunaga’s culture was reflective of his ambition to modernize Japan and bring it into the larger world.

Death and Legacy:

Assassination and Succession: In 1582, Nobunaga was betrayed by one of his trusted generals, Akechi Mitsuhide. Mitsuhide attacked Nobunaga at Honnō-ji, a temple in Kyoto, and forced him into a corner. Rather than face capture, Nobunaga committed seppuku (ritual suicide). His death marked the end of an era, but his efforts to unify Japan did not die with him.
Legacy: Though Nobunaga did not live to see the full unification of Japan, his conquests and reforms laid the foundation for Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and later Tokugawa Ieyasu, to complete the unification. His ability to bring together different factions and his military innovations greatly impacted the course of Japanese history. He is often considered one of the three unifiers of Japan, along with Hideyoshi and Ieyasu.

In Summary:

Oda Nobunaga was a visionary and ruthless leader who reshaped Japan’s military, political, and cultural landscape. His military prowess, political reforms, and innovative approach to governance were key to Japan’s eventual unification, even if his reign was cut short by assassination. His legacy remains influential in Japanese history, and he is celebrated as one of the most remarkable figures in the Sengoku period.

织田信长（1534年—1582年）是日本战国时期（1467年—1615年）的一位杰出战国大名。他以推动日本统一的进程而闻名，尽管他的直接统治时间较短，但他为丰臣秀吉和德川家康奠定了统一日本的基础。信长以其雄心勃勃的战略、军事创新和大胆决策改变了日本的军事和政治格局。以下是对织田信长生平和贡献的深入分析：

早年生活与崛起：

出生与早期：织田信长于1534年出生在今天的爱知县，他是织田信秀的儿子。信长的性格非常非传统，他早年继承了家族的领导地位，但与家族和家臣的忠诚问题一直纠缠不清。然而，他的决心和战略智慧最终帮助他建立了自己的权威。
初步崛起：信长在1551年继承了织田家族的领导地位。早期，他与邻近的其他大名常常发生冲突，争夺对领地的控制权。然而，他很快就控制了尾张（今爱知县），并开始扩展自己的势力。

主要军事成就：

桶狭间之战（1560年）：信长最著名的胜利之一是在1560年的桶狭间之战。信长以远小于敌军的兵力，在今川义元的军队面前获得了决定性的胜利。这一胜利使信长的声望大增，巩固了他作为一位出色军事战略家的地位。
军事创新：信长以其军事创新而著称，尤其是使用火枪。他是最早意识到火器在战斗中的重要性的战国大名之一，并在战斗中有效使用火枪，这为他赢得了许多重要的胜利。
统一日本：在接下来的二十年里，信长通过战略联盟、军事战役以及击败对手的手段，逐步扩大了自己的领土。到他去世时，他已控制了日本的大部分地区，包括京都，政治与文化中心，这对统一具有重大意义。

关键政策与文化贡献：

中央集权与改革：信长的政策致力于集中和增强他的权力。他实施了一系列经济、商业与基础设施改革，促进了经济的增长。他也是商人和工匠的支持者，这对国家的经济发展至关重要。信长的政策还包括推动使用火药武器和现代军事策略，这在当时是非常先进的。
宗教政策：信长与宗教的关系复杂，他以反对佛教寺庙的力量为人所知，尤其是一向宗这一佛教派系，这些寺庙在当时拥有强大的军事力量。他摧毁了本愿寺，这标志着他对佛教寺庙权力的强硬立场。然而，他对基督教的态度则相对宽容，信长允许基督教传教士在他的领土内活动，并认为它们有助于与欧洲国家的贸易和外交。

死亡与遗产：

被暗杀与继任：1582年，信长被他的一位亲信将领明智光秀背叛。在京都的本能寺，明智光秀发动突袭，迫使信长自尽。信长的死标志着一个时代的结束，但他推动日本统一的努力并未因他去世而终结。
遗产：尽管信长未能亲自完成日本的统一，但他的征服和改革为丰臣秀吉和德川家康的成功奠定了基础。信长的军事创新和集权政策深刻影响了日本的历史进程，他常被视为日本三大统一者之一，与秀吉和家康并列。

总结：

织田信长是一个具有远见和决断力的领袖，他重塑了日本的军事、政治和文化格局。他的军事才能、政治改革和创新的治理模式为日本的统一打下了坚实基础，尽管他未能亲自完成统一。信长的遗产在日本历史中占据着重要地位，是战国时期最为杰出的军事和政治人物之一。

The Bateren Edict (伴天连追放令)

The Bateren Edict (伴天连追放令) was a proclamation issued by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1587, which marked a significant moment in the history of Christianity in Japan. This edict ordered the expulsion of Christian missionaries from Japan and effectively restricted the spread of Christianity in the country. The name "Bateren" comes from the Portuguese word "padre" meaning "father," a reference to the Christian priests or missionaries.

The edict reflected the growing concerns of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his government about the influence of Christianity and its potential to disrupt the political and social order in Japan. While Christianity had initially been tolerated and even encouraged during the reign of Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi's stance on the religion became increasingly hostile. This shift was influenced by several factors:

Key Reasons Behind the Bateren Edict:

Fear of Foreign Influence: Hideyoshi feared the growing influence of European powers, particularly the Spanish and Portuguese, whose missionaries were seen as potential tools for political and colonial expansion. The missionaries were also associated with the spread of Catholicism, which was seen as a rival to the indigenous Buddhist and Shinto traditions.
Political Control and Stability: Hideyoshi was concerned that the Christian religion might serve as a unifying force among the Christian daimyo (feudal lords), who had converted to Christianity. This could challenge his own authority and the stability of his centralized rule. The edict was therefore partly an attempt to prevent any alliances or support for rival factions that could pose a threat to his power.
Economic Concerns: The Jesuit missionaries had become deeply involved in trade, particularly in the region around Nagasaki. Hideyoshi likely saw the missionaries’ commercial activities as a threat to Japan's independence and sovereignty. The expulsion of missionaries would also curb the influence of European merchants in Japanese affairs.
Religious and Social Control: Hideyoshi, along with other leaders in Japan at the time, was wary of the social changes that Christianity could bring. The religion promoted a different set of values, including loyalty to the Pope and Christian teachings, which were seen as contradictory to traditional Japanese values of loyalty to the emperor and feudal hierarchy.

Consequences of the Bateren Edict:

Initial Expulsion: The Bateren Edict led to the expulsion of several Catholic missionaries from Japan, including the Jesuits, who had been active in missionary work since 1549 under the leadership of Francisco de Xavier.
Underground Christianity: Despite the official expulsion, Christianity persisted in Japan for many years in an underground form. These secret Christians, known as "Hidden Christians" (隠れキリシタン, kakure kirishitan), continued their faith in secret, often facing persecution.
Later Prohibitions: The Bateren Edict was a precursor to further anti-Christian measures in the years that followed, including the Tokugawa Shogunate's complete ban on Christianity by the early 17th century, culminating in the persecution of Christians under Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors. The Shimabara Rebellion (1637-1638) was one of the most significant uprisings involving Christians, and the suppression of this rebellion led to the final eradication of Christianity in Japan for over two centuries.

Legacy:

The Bateren Edict played a crucial role in shaping the future of Christianity in Japan. Although the religion was banned, its underground practice persisted for centuries, and the legacy of early Christian missionaries like Francisco de Xavier remains an important part of Japanese history. The ban was not lifted until Meiji Restoration in the 19th century, when Japan opened up to foreign influence once again. Today, Christianity remains a minority religion in Japan, but the early history of Christianity, particularly the Bateren Edict and the subsequent persecution, continues to be a subject of study and reflection in Japanese religious and cultural history.

伴天连追放令（Bateren Edict）是丰臣秀吉于1587年发布的一道法令，标志着日本历史上对基督教的态度发生了重大转折。该法令命令基督教传教士离开日本，实际上限制了基督教在日本的传播。这道法令的名称“Bateren”来源于葡萄牙语中的“padre”，意指“父亲”，这是对传教士的称呼。

这项法令反映了丰臣秀吉及其政府对基督教的扩张及其可能对日本政治和社会秩序产生影响的日益担忧。虽然基督教在织田信长的统治下曾被宽容甚至鼓励，但丰臣秀吉的态度逐渐变得敌视。这个转变有几个重要的因素：

伴天连追放令的背景原因：

对外来影响的担忧：丰臣秀吉担心欧洲强国，尤其是西班牙和葡萄牙，通过基督教传教士对日本施加政治和殖民扩张的影响。传教士也与天主教的传播相关联，这与日本本土的佛教和神道传统发生了冲突。
政治控制与稳定：丰臣秀吉担心基督教可能成为基督教大名（改宗基督教的封建领主）之间的联盟纽带，进而威胁到自己的权力和中央集权的稳定。伴天连追放令的实施，实际上是为了防止这些基督教领主联合，挑战丰臣政权。
经济担忧：耶稣会传教士参与了大量的贸易，尤其是在长崎地区。丰臣秀吉可能认为传教士的商业活动威胁到了日本的独立性和主权。将传教士驱逐出境，也就意味着削弱了欧洲商人对日本事务的影响。
宗教与社会控制：丰臣秀吉和当时的其他日本领导人对基督教所带来的社会变化感到忧虑。基督教提倡的忠诚于教皇和基督教教义与日本传统的忠诚于天皇和封建社会等级的价值观产生了冲突。

伴天连追放令的后果：

初步驱逐：伴天连追放令导致了多个天主教传教士的被驱逐，包括自1549年起在日本活跃的耶稣会传教士，他们以圣方济各·沙勿略为领导。
地下基督教：尽管官方宣告了基督教的驱逐，但基督教在日本的地下传播持续了数百年。这些秘密的基督徒被称为**“隐秘基督徒”**（隠れキリシタン，kakure kirishitan），他们在地下继续他们的信仰，经常面临迫害。
后续的禁令：伴天连追放令是后续更加严厉的反基督教措施的前奏，包括德川幕府在17世纪初对基督教的全面禁令，以及后来的基督徒迫害。岛原之乱（1637-1638年）是涉及基督徒的最重要起义之一，这场起义的失败导致了基督教在日本的彻底消失，长达两个世纪之久。

遗产：

伴天连追放令在塑造日本基督教历史上扮演了重要角色。尽管宗教被禁，基督教在地下继续存在了几个世纪，像圣方济各·沙勿略这样的早期基督教传教士的遗产依然是日本历史中不可或缺的一部分。基督教禁令直到19世纪的明治维新才被撤销，日本重新开放对外交流。如今，基督教在日本仍是少数宗教，但伴天连追放令及随后的迫害历史，仍然是日本宗教和文化历史中值得研究和反思的主题。

The San Felipe Incident

The San Felipe Incident (Spanish: Incidente del San Felipe) was a significant event that took place in 1596 and had profound consequences on the relationship between Japan and Christianity. This incident, involving the Spanish ship San Felipe, was one of the key moments that shaped the course of Japan’s policy toward Christian missionaries and their influence in the country.

The Incident:

In October 1596, the Spanish galleon San Felipe, a merchant ship, was shipwrecked off the coast of Shikoku, a region of Japan. The ship was part of the Spanish trade route and was carrying valuable goods, including religious items, from Manila in the Philippines to Mexico. After the shipwreck, the crew of the San Felipe, along with the cargo, was seized by the Japanese authorities.

The shipwreck itself was not the major cause for concern; rather, it was the cargo and the subsequent interactions between the Spanish crew and the Japanese authorities that became the focal point of the incident. When the crew was interrogated, it was discovered that the ship carried many religious materials, and some crew members were Catholic missionaries or Jesuits, who were working to spread Christianity in Japan.

The Japanese authorities, led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, saw this as an opportunity to understand more about the Spanish presence in Japan. The Spanish missionaries had been involved in the spread of Christianity, and Hideyoshi and other Japanese leaders were becoming increasingly concerned about the influence of Christianity in Japan and its possible implications for Japan’s social, political, and religious order.

Impact of the Incident:

Perception of Christianity: The shipwreck reinforced the negative perceptions that Toyotomi Hideyoshi and other Japanese leaders had about the Catholic missionaries. It was believed that Christianity might be used as a tool for colonial expansion by European powers, especially Spain. Hideyoshi was particularly concerned that the missionaries were not only spreading their faith but also undermining traditional Japanese values and loyalties.
Confiscation of Goods: In the aftermath of the incident, the Japanese authorities confiscated the goods aboard the San Felipe, which included religious articles, Bibles, and crucifixes. This act was seen as a symbolic rejection of the Spanish influence and Christianity. The goods were often destroyed or repurposed, and the missionaries were expelled.
Impact on the San Felipe Crew: The crew members of the San Felipe were treated harshly. Many of them were arrested and some were executed in a public display to send a message about the Japanese government's stance on foreign influence and Christianity. The event is particularly remembered for the execution of 26 Christians, which was seen as a martyrdom and was used by the Spanish as a way to assert the legitimacy of their religious mission.
Increased Hostility Towards Christianity: The incident was one of the events that led to a hardening of the Japanese government's stance against Christianity. Although Christianity had been allowed and even encouraged under some rulers like Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi's response to the San Felipe incident and subsequent events, including the Bateren Edict of 1587, marked a turn toward persecution of Christians in Japan.
International Relations: The San Felipe incident also contributed to Japan’s decision to close its borders to foreign influence during the early 17th century, specifically under the Tokugawa Shogunate. This was part of the Sakoku (鎖国) policy, which effectively isolated Japan from much of the outside world for over two centuries.

Conclusion:

The San Felipe Incident highlighted the growing concerns of Japan’s rulers about the influence of Christianity, as well as the potential political ramifications of foreign missionary activity. It marked a key moment in the relationship between Japan and Christianity, contributing to a shift from tolerance to persecution, and played a role in Japan’s subsequent isolationist policies.

圣菲利普号事件

圣菲利普号事件（西班牙语：Incidente del San Felipe）发生在1596年，是影响日本与基督教关系的重要事件之一。这一事件涉及到西班牙船只圣菲利普号，它是塑造日本基督教政策的重要时刻。

事件经过：

1596年10月，西班牙的圣菲利普号（San Felipe）在四国岛附近遭遇海难。这艘商船从菲律宾马尼拉航行至墨西哥，途中发生船只沉没，船上的货物，包括宗教物品，全部被日本当局扣押。船员也被带到日本进行审讯。

虽然船难本身并不令人担忧，但船上的货物和西班牙船员与日本当局的互动成为了事件的焦点。当当局查获船员时，他们发现船上携带着大量天主教宗教物品，其中包括圣像、圣经和十字架。船员中还有一些是天主教传教士，他们一直在试图在日本传播基督教。

事件的影响：

基督教的认知：圣菲利普号的沉没加深了丰臣秀吉及其他日本领导人对天主教传教士的负面看法。日本认为基督教可能是西班牙通过殖民扩张工具来渗透日本的手段。丰臣秀吉尤其担心，传教士不仅在传播宗教信仰，还可能破坏日本的社会、政治和宗教秩序。
货物的没收：事件发生后，日本当局没收了圣菲利普号上的所有货物，其中包括宗教物品、圣经和十字架。这一举动象征性地表示拒绝西班牙的影响和基督教。许多宗教物品被销毁或改作他用，传教士们则被驱逐。
船员的待遇：圣菲利普号的船员被严厉对待。许多人被逮捕，并且有些人被公开处决，以此向外界传递日本政府对外来影响和基督教的态度。这一事件尤其因26名基督徒的殉道而被铭记，这些殉道者成为了基督教信仰的象征，并被西班牙用作传播宗教的工具。
基督教的敌对态度加剧：这次事件是日本政府对基督教立场愈加强硬的导火索之一。尽管基督教在织田信长等领导下曾被宽容，甚至在一定程度上被鼓励，但丰臣秀吉对圣菲利普号事件的反应以及随后的伴天连追放令（1587年），标志着日本从宽容到迫害的转变。
国际关系：圣菲利普号事件还促使日本在17世纪初决定实行对外封闭政策，尤其是在德川幕府时期。这是锁国政策的一部分，标志着日本与外界几乎隔绝长达两百年。

结论：

圣菲利普号事件加深了日本领导人对基督教影响力的担忧，并且直接促成了日本从容忍到迫害基督教的政策转变。它在日本与基督教的关系史中占据了重要地位，并且影响了日本后来的孤立主义政策。

Fumi-e (踏み絵)

Fumi-e (踏み絵) refers to the "stepping-on images" or Christian icon images that were used during the 17th century in Japan as part of the persecution of Christians. The term "fumi-e" literally means "stepping on pictures" in Japanese.

Purpose of Fumi-e:

The primary purpose of the fumi-e was to identify hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan) during Japan's period of Christian persecution, particularly under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate. After Christianity was banned in Japan in the early 17th century, the government sought to eradicate the faith, and fumi-e were used as a tool to force suspected Christians to publicly renounce their faith. If an individual was found to be a Christian, they were required to step on an image of Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary as a symbolic act of apostasy.

The Process of Fumi-e:

Public Ritual: During the period of persecution, local authorities would often conduct public inspections where suspected Christians were ordered to step on a wooden or metal image of Christ or the Virgin Mary. These images were often crucifixes or depictions of saints.
Refusal and Consequences: Christians who refused to step on the images were often executed, tortured, or exiled. Those who complied, however, were generally allowed to live, but their action was seen as a public renouncement of their faith.
Hidden Christians: The use of fumi-e led to the development of hidden Christianity, with Japanese Christians maintaining their faith in secret. They would often worship in private and use disguised Christian symbols or modified prayers to avoid detection by authorities.

Cultural and Religious Significance:

Symbol of Religious Persecution: Fumi-e represents the severe measures taken by the Tokugawa Shogunate to suppress Christianity. It was a tool not just of religious control but of cultural and social oppression, forcing individuals to deny their personal beliefs and traditions under threat of death or punishment.
Martyrdom: The refusal to step on the images often led to martyrdom, and many Christians were executed for their defiance. These martyrs are remembered in Christian history for their unwavering faith.
Impact on Christianity in Japan: The use of fumi-e was a central part of the persecution that effectively eliminated overt Christianity from Japan for over two centuries. Despite this, hidden Christians managed to keep their faith alive, and many Christian traditions were preserved in secret until Japan opened up to the West in the 19th century.

In Summary:

The fumi-e were an instrument of religious persecution used during the Tokugawa Shogunate to identify and force Christians to abandon their faith. This practice was part of a broader effort to eliminate Christianity from Japan after it was banned in the early 17th century. The fumi-e symbolize the challenges that Christians faced during this period, and the legacy of the hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan) who maintained their faith in secret is a testament to their resilience and dedication.

踏み絵 (Fumi-e)

踏み絵（fumi-e）是指17世纪在日本进行的宗教迫害中的一种“踏像”行为，基督徒被迫踩踏宗教图像或圣像。这个词的字面意思是“踩踏图像”或“踏上图像”。

踏み絵的目的：

踏み絵的主要目的是在基督教迫害时期，特别是在德川幕府的统治下，用来识别隐秘基督徒（隠れキリシタン）。在基督教被禁止后，日本政府努力消除基督教的影响，踏み絵成为强迫怀疑者公开放弃信仰的工具。基督徒如果被发现，通常会被要求踩踏耶稣基督或圣母玛利亚的图像，象征他们的背叛。

踏み絵的过程：

公开仪式：在迫害时期，当地政府会组织公开检查，要求怀疑是基督徒的人踩踏木制或金属图像，这些图像通常是十字架或圣像。
拒绝与后果：那些拒绝踩踏的人通常会被处决、折磨或流放。然而，选择踩踏的人虽然免于死亡，但被视为公开放弃基督教信仰。
隐秘基督徒：踏み絵的使用导致了隐秘基督教的形成，日本的基督徒在秘密中保持信仰，常常在私下进行崇拜，并使用伪装的基督教符号或修改过的祈祷词来避开当局的侦查。

文化和宗教意义：

宗教迫害的象征：踏み絵代表了德川幕府为压制基督教采取的严厉手段。这不仅是宗教控制的工具，也是文化和社会压迫的一部分，迫使个人在生死存亡面前否定自己的信仰和传统。
殉道：拒绝踏像的基督徒通常会遭到殉道，许多人因不愿屈服于强迫而被处决。这些殉道者在基督教历史上被铭记，因为他们坚守信仰，毫不动摇。
对基督教在日本的影响：踏み絵是迫害的一部分，它有效地消除了日本的显性基督教，持续了两个多世纪。然而，隐秘基督徒在秘密中保持信仰，许多基督教传统被保留下来，直到19世纪日本重新与西方接触。